THE HUMANE CAPTURE, HANDLING, AND DISPOSITION OF

THE HUMANE CAPTURE,

HANDLING, AND

DISPOSITION OF MIGRATORY

BIRDS

Nov 2022

Final

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

Acknowledgments

Thank you to the staff of U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service – Migratory Birds

Program, U.S. Department of Agriculture – Wildlife Services, and the U.S.

Geological Survey – Bird Banding Laboratory for their contributions, support

and review of this document – it truly was a group effort. Special thanks to

Lori Arent with the University of Minnesota’s Raptor Center for her editing

skills.

Any use of trade, product, or firm names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply

endorsement by the U.S. Government.

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

Prepared by:

Jennifer Miller, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Migratory Birds Program

Division of Conservation, Permits, and Regulations. (jennifer_miller@fws.gov)

Jason Suckow, USDA Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center.

([email protected])

Antonio Celis-Murillo, U.S. Geological Survey, Eastern Ecological Science Center’s

Bird Banding Laboratory. (acelis[email protected]ov)

Brian E. Washburn, USDA Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center.

([email protected])

Brian A. Millsap, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Division of Migratory Bird Management.

([email protected])

Margaret A. Pepper, USDA Wildlife Services, Operational Support Staff.

([email protected])

Arthur B. McCollum, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Migratory Birds Program.

([email protected])

Michael J. Begier, USDA Wildlife Services, Airport Wildlife Hazards Program.

([email protected])

Edited by:

Lori Arent, University of Minnesota’s Raptor Center.

Citation:

Miller, J., J. Suckow, A. Celis-Murillo, B.E. Washburn, B.A. Millsap, M.A. Pepper, A.B.

McCollum and M.J. Begier. 2022. The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of

Migratory Birds. First Edition. USFWS, APHIS, USGS Washington, D.C. Nov. 15, 2022.

Cover, Photo: USDA, Wildlife Services

The Humane Capture, Handling, and

Disposition of Migratory Birds

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. PURPOSE………………………...……………………………………………………………………...…...3

LIVE-CAPTURE METHODS…..……………..…………………………………………………………..……4

2a.

Common live-traps………………..………………………………..…………………………..……….5

2a.1 Bal-chatri trap………………………………………………….……………….…………………....5

2a.2 Swedish Goshawk trap…………………………………………….……………………………..….7

2a.3 Pole trap………………………………………………………….……………………………..……9

2a.4 Bow net trap……………………………………………………...…………………………………11

2b. Specialized capture methods……………………………………..……………….……………………13

2b.1 Dho-gaza……………………………………………………………………………………………13

2b.2 Modified Australian crow trap………………………………………………………………….….14

2b.3 Waterfowl swim-in trap……………………………………………………………………………15

2b.4 Net launcher/Cannon net…………………………………………………………………………...16

2b.5 Net gun………………………………………………………………………….………………….17

2b.6 Padded foothold trap……………………………………………………………………………….18

2b.7 Vulture walk-in trap………………………………………………………….…………………….20

2b.8 Mist net…………………………………………………………………………………………….22

3. H

ANDLING………………………………………………………………………………………………….23

3a. Trap checks…………………………………………..…………………………………………………23

3b. Extracting migratory birds….………………………………………………………………………….23

3c. Evaluating birds for injury or disease………………………………………………………………….23

3d. Banding and auxiliary marking…………………………….…………………………………………..24

3d.1 Reporting bands…………………………………………..………………………………………..24

3e. Carriers & transport……………………………………………………….……………………………25

3e.1 Carriers……………………………………………………………………………………………..25

3e.2 Duration in carriers…………………………………………………………………………………26

3e.3 Enclosures …………………………………………………………………………………….……26

3e.4 Other considerations………………………………………………………………………………..27

4. D

ISPOSITION OF MIGRATORY BIRDS………………………………………………………………………27

4a. Non-target species………………………………………………………………………………………27

4b. Options for disposition………………………………………………………………………………….27

4b.1 Release……………………………………………………………………………………………..28

4b.2 Medical Care……………………………………………………………………………………….28

4b.3 Placement…………………………………………………………………………………………..28

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

4b.3.i Educational use……………………………………………………………………………………28

4b.3.ii Falconry use.……………………………………………………………………………………..28

4b.4 Euthanasia………………………………………………………………………………………….29

4c. Determining disposition (in all scenarios) ……………………………………...……………………...29

4c.1 Resource protected/urgency………………………………………………………………………...29

4c.2 Species……………………………………………………………………………………………...29

4c.3 Seasonality………………………………………………………………………………………….29

4c.4 Age………………………………………………………………………………………………….30

4c.5 Sex………………………………………………………………………………………………….30

4c.6 The individual………………………………………………………………………………………30

4d. Release considerations………………………………………………………………………………….30

4d.1 Distance…………………………………………………………………………………………….31

4d.2 Habitat……………………………………………………………………………………………...31

4d.3 Aversive conditioning………………………………...……………………………………………31

4d.4 Display of birds…………………………………………………………………………………….31

5. P

ERMITTING…………...…………………………………………………………………………………...32

5a. Depredation activities that do not require a permit…………………………………………………….32

5a.1 Harassing migratory birds………………………………………………………….……………….32

5a.2 Destruction and relocation of migratory bird nest that are not in-use..…………….………..……..32

5a.3 Depredation, control, and conservation orders……………………………………………………..33

5b. Depredation permits……………………………………………………………………………………33

5b.1 Migratory bird depredation permits – general……………………………………………………...33

5b.2 Airport depredation permits………………………………………………………………………..34

5b.3 Wildlife Services statewide depredation permits…………………………………………………..34

5b.4 Eagle depredation permits………………………………………………………………………….34

5b.5 Records and reporting……………………………………………………………………….……...34

5c. Related permits…………………………………………………………………………………………34

5c.1 Banding and marking permits………………………………………………………………………35

5c.2 Scientific collection permits………………………………………………………………………..35

6. T

RAINING…...……………………………………………………………………………………………...35

REFERENCES………..…………………………………………………………………………………..35

PPENDIX 1: DEFINITIONS…………………..……………………………………………………….……….38

PPENDIX 2: WEB LINKS AND ADDRESSES…………………………………………………………………..39

PPENDIX 3: USING THE RAPTOR TRAUMA TRIAGE CARD………………………………………………….40

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

1. PURPOSE

The purpose of this technical document is to serve as reference material on the humane capture,

handling, and care of migratory birds captured for any purpose with an emphasis on depredation

resolution in the United States and its territories. It is intended for wildlife managers, regulatory

personnel, and individuals that handle or authorize handling of live-captured migratory birds. The U.S.

Fish and Wildlife Service – Migratory Bird Program (USFWS MBP), the U.S. Geological Survey Bird

Banding Laboratory (USGS BBL), and U.S. Department of Agriculture Animal Plant Health Inspection

Service Wildlife Services (USDA APHIS WS) collaboratively prepared this document.

Humane and healthful conditions apply to the capture, possession, and transport of any live migratory

bird, including bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) and golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos), whether

possession is temporary or long-term. Humane and healthful conditions include handling (e.g., during

capture, care, release, restraint, and training), housing (e.g., whether temporary, permanent, or

transport), shelter, feeding and watering, sanitation, ventilation, protection from predators and vermin,

enrichment, veterinary care, and euthanasia. To be considered humane and healthful, conditions must

minimize fear, pain, stress, and suffering to the extent practicable and reflect the best-known methods as

supported by the best available science (USFWS personal communication 2022).

Natural resources are held in the public trust. Federal agencies must strive for the professional

management of these resources and for the welfare of wildlife. Resource management decisions should

be informed by the best available science and knowledge which includes care and handling of migratory

birds using the best available information on humane and effective techniques. The guidance herein

serves to provide information on current available techniques, correct methods, and other important

considerations. Personnel are expected to be proficient in the use of any method prior to its use.

As with most natural resource decisions, capturing of migratory birds is a decision process often with no

clear ‘right’ answer. When capturing birds for depredation purposes, there is a balance between the

resources being protected (e.g., aviation) and the benefit of the bird remaining in the population. This

document provides information that is designed to guide method selection from the various techniques

and proper handling of birds. The document provides general information for consideration and more

detailed information should be sought as appropriate.

Prior to utilizing any capture method for federally protected birds, permits must be obtained from

USFWS or USGS (See Section 5 of this report). Additional federal permits may be required for bald

eagles, golden eagles, and birds on the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife (50 CFR 17.11).

State permits may also be required. The Animal Welfare Act (AWA, 7 U.S.C. § 2143; U.S. Department

of Agriculture, 2013; 9 CFR 2.31) requires Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)

review if using live birds for research, teaching, testing, experimentation, or exhibition purposes.

This document is not meant to be inclusive of all capture methods, techniques, and permit types. This

document will be periodically reviewed and updated or revised as needed. It is the expectation that the

person capturing will use their best judgement based on local conditions.

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

2. LIVE-CAPTURE METHODS

There are many live capture methods and tools that are humane when used properly. To be considered

humane and healthful, conditions must minimize fear, pain, stress, and suffering to the extent practicable

and reflect the best-known methods as supported by the best available science. We describe many live-

trap types that are commonly used to safely capture raptors and other migratory birds below. This list is

not all-inclusive. Any live-capture method selected for use should minimize the risk of injury or

mortality to the targeted species, non-target species, and lure animals.

This document provides recommended check times for selected techniques. Additional checks are

necessary during periods of inclement weather due to the increased risk of mortality (e.g., birds unable

to thermoregulate). Additional considerations when using live-traps include but are not limited to the

following: (1) the number of birds one intends to capture at one or multiple sites, (2) the number of

devices that will be set and monitored at one time and the distance between them, (3) the training level

of operators and the number of people required for the effort, (4) the time of year (e.g., breeding,

migration, or molting periods), (5) the time of day, (6) weather and climatic conditions (see inclement

weather definition in Appendix 1), (7) the risk of predation of the live-captured bird(s), and (8) the

ability to use technology to aid in checks. Birds must be properly cared for once they are known to be

captured.

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

2a Common Live-Traps

2a.1 Bal-chatri Trap

Commonly targeted species: accipiters,

medium/large buteos, small falcons and owls

(Miller and Schlieps 2021).

The bal-chatri trap has been used to capture most

raptor species in North America, including but not

limited to red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis),

Cooper’s hawks (Accipiter cooperii), northern harriers

(Circus cyaneus), snowy owls (Bubo scandiacus),

great horned owls (Bubo virginianus), and American

kestrels (Falco sparverius).

Description

The bal-chatri, derived from a Hindi word which

roughly translates to “noosed umbrella” (Clark 1992), is a wire cage with nooses tied to the top, sides, or

both (Berger and Mueller 1959). It is a relatively small, versatile, and effective trap that can be

modified to capture individual species of hawks and owls. Live small mammals or birds are used to lure

a raptor into landing on the trap. Nylon nooses, monofilament fishing line or coated fishing leader with

crimps entangle its toes/feet and hold the bird until it is released.

Although bal-chatri traps are commercially available, they are easy and inexpensive to construct. There

are several different sizes and shapes of bal-chatri traps including square-shaped, cone-shaped, and

Quonset hut-type bal-chatris (Bub 1978). The door for the lure animal should be on the bottom of the

trap where it will not interfere with nooses. Applying camouflage to the traps is important; spray

painting the trap before nooses are attached is a common technique. Painting the trap bottom a bright

color (orange) will indicate when the trap has been flipped. The flash of orange when the trap flips can

help prompt the observer that some type of action is needed.

Bal-chatri traps should be secured with a weight suitable to prevent the raptor from flying away with or

dragging the trap and breaking nooses (e.g., exercise and barbell weights work well) or tied to a flexible

branch to keep a trapped bird from dragging the trap and breaking the nylon nooses (Bloom et al. 2007).

For traps under constant surveillance, a suggested recommendation is to use a 2 pound. barbell weight

attached to the trap via a 3 foot length of nylon cord with a “shock-absorbing” spring. Care should be

taken so that the lure(s) cannot chew through the cord (e.g. secure the cord to the trap with a metal clip).

Many practitioners attach the weight directly to the floor or sides of the bal-chatri trap. However, a

spring or other “shock absorber” must be used in situations where the trap is tied to a stationary object.

The Quonset hut bal-chatri (Berger and Hamerstrom 1962) was designed for trapping large hawks and

owls. The trap is often made from 1 inch chicken wire or ½ inch. hardware cloth formed into a cage that

is 18 inch long, 10 inch wide, and 7 inch high at the middle. The floor consists of 1 inch mesh welded

wire with a lure entrance door and steel rod edging for ballast. The top is covered with nooses of 40

pound test monofilament fishing line.

Photo: USDA, Wildlife Services. Bal-chatri with rock

pigeon

(Columbia livia) as lure.

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

Noose carpets are similar to bal-chatri traps. They consist of a base (typically a strip of wire mesh)

affixed with monofilament nooses. The trap is placed in a location the target bird will likely perch/rest

such as near a nest or food source. In addition, a noose harness on a lure bird can work in a similar

manner (Bloom et al. 2007).

General use/set criteria

Bal-chatri traps are effective only when placed where a perched or hunting raptor can see them. When

placing traps, consider current uses of the area such as vehicles, large animals, and people who might

crush, damage, or move the trap. See Bloom et al. (2007) for suggested noose sizes for targeted species.

Lures: house sparrows (Passer domesticus), starlings

(Sturnus vulgaris), rock pigeons (Columbia livia), house

mice (Mus musculus), gerbils (Gerbillus spp.), and other

small rodents can be used as lures. Multiple color

variants may increase attractiveness of lures. Migratory

birds may not be used as a lure without appropriate

permitting (See MBTA, 16 U.S.C. §§ 703–712).

Selection of lures (i.e., bait animals) used in bal-chatri

traps depends on the size and shape of the bal-chatri as

well as the species of hawk or owl being targeted.

Trap check:

● Continuous monitoring

These traps must be monitored continuously, and

captured birds removed immediately to prevent injury or

predation by other raptors. Also, the nooses will

eventually break and release the bird. In addition, note that lure(s) can chew and weaken nooses.

References

Berger, D. D., and F. Hamerstrom. 1962. Protecting a trapping station from raptor predation. Journal of

Wildlife Management 26:203–206.

Bloom, P. H., W. S. Clark, and J. W. Kidd. 2007. Capture techniques. Pages 221–236 in Bird, D. M.,

and K. L. Bildstein, editors. Raptor research and management techniques. Hancock House

Publishers, Blaine, Washington, USA.

Bub, H. 1991. (Translated by F. Hamerstrom and K. Wuertz-Schaefer). Bird trapping and Bird

Banding; A handbook for trapping methods all over the world. Cornell University Press, Ithaca,

New York, USA.

Clark, W. 1992. On the etymology of the name Bal-Chatri. Journal of Raptor Research 26:196.

Miller, E. A., and J. Schlieps, editors. 2021. Standards for Wildlife Rehabilitation.

National Wildlife Rehabilitators Association: Bloomington, MN. 419 pages.

Photo: USDA, Wildlife Services. Red-tailed hawk (Buteo

jamaicensis)

captured in a bal-chatri trap.

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

2a.2 Swedish Goshawk Trap

Commonly targeted species: accipiters, medium/large buteos, medium/large owls and small falcons

(Miller and Schlieps 2021). The Swedish goshawk trap has been used to capture most hawk species,

several species of owl, and American kestrels (Falco sparverius) in North America.

Description

The Swedish goshawk trap was originally described by Meredith (1953) and has since been improved

and made more portable (Meng 1971, Kenward et al. 1983).

The Swedish goshawk trap is a relatively

large, semi-permanent, trap that consists of

two parts, a bait cage and a trap mechanism

(Bub 1991, Bloom et al. 2007). The bait

cage (e.g., a 3 x 3 x 1 foot cage made from 1

inch mesh welded wire) holds the lure

animal(s) safely. The trap mechanism (often

consisting of a wooden or metal “A” frame,

heavy springs to pull the doors closed, nylon

netting or chicken wire, and a trigger

mechanism such as a hinged stick) is

mounted on top of the bait cage. A raptor

dropping into the trap will trip the trigger

mechanism and safely be trapped inside. It is

recommended that traps be secured to the

ground by staking or tethering.

Smaller versions of the Swedish goshawk

trap have been developed and successfully

used to live-capture American kestrels.

Additionally, a “double-chambered” small Swedish goshawk trap has been developed and used

successfully to live-capture two American kestrels at a time during the same deployment period (Pitlik

and Washburn 2016).

General use/set criteria

Swedish goshawk traps are particularly useful reducing the presence of raptors in large areas (such as an

airfield), as many individual “live-traps” can be used simultaneously and trapped individuals can then be

translocated away from the area.

Lures: rock pigeons (Columba livia) and European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) are good lures because

of their size, activity level (movement is important for attracting hawks and owls), non-protected species

status, and ease of care. One or more lures should be placed in a bait cage or tethered to an anchor to

increase their movement and attractiveness. Using different-colored pigeons creates an additional

attractiveness for raptors. Rodents such as mice (Mus musculus), rats (Rattus spp.), and guinea pigs

(Cavia porcellus) can also be effective lures. The trap should be placed in a location that allows for good

Photo: USDA, Wildlife Services. Red-tailed hawk (Buteo

jamaicensis)

captured on an airfield in a Swedish goshawk trap.

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

visibility. Lure animals should be properly

cared for and be provided food and water.

Migratory birds may not be used as a lure

without appropriate permitting (See MBTA,

16 U.S.C. §§ 703 – 712).

Trap check:

● 6hrs recommended

● 12hrs maximum

● 16hrs for nocturnal owls only

Although trapping with this method is

relatively slow, most birds that enter the trap

are caught and do not escape. The best

attribute of the trap is that it only needs to be

checked at least every 12 hours or more

frequently as weather conditions or other

factors dictate. Swedish goshawk traps can be

monitored in person, by camera, or by other

remote-sensing technology such as trap

transponders. Traps can be set overnight

to target owls but must be checked within 16

hours.

References

Bloom, P. H., W. S. Clark, and J. W. Kidd. 2007. Capture techniques. Pages 221–236 in Bird, D. M.,

and K. L. Bildstein, editors. Raptor research and management techniques. Hancock House

Publishers, Blaine, Washington, USA.

Bub, H. 1991. (Translated by F. Hamerstrom and K. Wuertz-Schaefer). Bird trapping and Bird

Banding; A handbook for trapping methods all over the world. Cornell University Press, Ithaca,

New York, USA.

Kenward, R. E., M. Karlbom, and V. Marcström. 1983. The price of success in goshawk trapping.

Journal of Raptor Research 17:84–91.

Meng, H. 1971. The Swedish goshawk trap. Journal of Wildlife Management 35:832–835.

Meredith, R. L. 1953. Trapping goshawks. Journal of the Falconry Club of America 1:12–14.

Miller, E. A., and J. Schlieps, editors. 2021. Standards for Wildlife Rehabilitation.

National Wildlife Rehabilitators Association: Bloomington, MN. 419 pages.

Pitlik, T. J., and B. E. Washburn. 2016. Non-lethal management of American kestrels: A case study at

the Los Angeles International Airport. Proceedings of Vertebrate Pest Conference 27:244−247.

Photo: USDA, Wildlife Services. Biologist removing bird

from trap for

translocation.

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

2a.3 Pole Trap

Commonly targeted species: medium/large buteos,

medium/large owls and small falcons (Miller and Schlieps

2021). Pole traps (including modified foothold, noose poles

and Verbail traps) have been used to capture most hawk

species, several species of owl, and American kestrels (Falco

sparverius) in North America.

Description

The term ‘pole trap’ is used to describe a variety of traps with the

common denominator being that a trapping device is placed on a

pole or structure that a raptor would perch on. Devices within the

pole trap category include unmodified foothold traps, modified

foothold traps, Verbail traps (Stewart et al. 1945), and perch snares

(Prévost and Baker 1984, Dunk 1991).

Pole traps, as defined in this document, consist of a specially

modified foothold trap secured to the top of a post or pole (using a

wooden post, a metal pole, or PVC pole) to attract hawks and owls to

use it as a hunting perch. When landing on the perch, the bird

depresses the trap pan and the modified foothold trap jaws will firmly

but safely capture the bird. The trap is secured to a ‘slide’ that allows the trap and captured bird to slip

to the ground. It is essential that the bird is able to comfortably sit on the ground once captured to avoid

possible injury. Foothold traps (a 1½ double-coil spring is a useful size) must be modified to weaken

the strength of the trap to an appropriate level (i.e., removing or modifying one or more springs).

Another valuable option is to replace the trap’s springs with the wire springs from a rat snap-trap. The

jaws of the foothold trap must be rubber padded or wrapped with surgical tubing and electrician’s tape

to protect the bird’s legs. At least two swivels (preferably more) must be used in the trap’s chain (i.e.,

one where it attaches to the trap itself and one where the chain ‘loop’ attaches to the slide) to prevent

tangling. The chain of the trap is then attached to a pole, post, or other structure via a tether or slide that

is long enough to allow the captured bird to safely descend to the ground. This description is not

intended to be prescriptive. There are multiple ways to modify pole traps.

The Verbail trap was invented by Vernon Bailey (Stewart et al. 1945). The Verbail trap consists of a

wire spring that throws a noose (typically made of cord) around the legs of a bird when pressure is

exerted on the pan (Bloom et al. 2007). Verbail traps are difficult to find in the commercial market.

These devices can be challenging to build.

General use/set criteria

Pole traps are effective especially where perching sites are limited (such as large, open grassland areas

with no trees or structures). This trap should be considered if other traps are unsuitable and must only

be used by experienced personnel as it can have an increased risk for potential injury. The use of pole

traps may be prohibited in some states. Consult your state wildlife agency for regulations specific to

your situation.

Photo: USDA, Wildlife Services.

Pole trap set.

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

Lure: N/A; Lures or bait is typically not used with pole traps as the attractant is the perch location

(typically as a vantage point for hunting raptors).

Trap check:

● 1hr recommended

● 2hrs maximum

Although trapping with this method is relatively slow, most birds that enter the trap are caught and do

not escape. Pole traps can be monitored in person, by camera, or by other remote-sensing technology

such as trap transponders. Birds must be removed and processed once they are known to be captured.

References

Bloom, P. H., W. S. Clark, and J. W. Kidd. 2007. Capture techniques. Pages 221–236 in Bird, D. M.,

and K. L. Bildstein, editors. Raptor research and management techniques. Hancock House

Publishers, Blaine, Washington, USA.

Dunk, J. R. 1991. A selective pole trap for raptors. Wildlife Society Bulletin 19:208–210.

Miller, E. A., and J. Schlieps, editors. 2021. Standards for Wildlife Rehabilitation.

National Wildlife Rehabilitators Association: Bloomington, MN. 419 pages.

Prévost, Y. A., and J. M. Baker. 1984. A perch snare for catching ospreys. Journal of Wildlife

Management 48:991–993.

Stewart, R. E., J. B. Cope, and C. S. Robbins. 1945. Live trapping of hawks and owls. Journal of

Wildlife Management 9:99–104.

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

2a.4 Bow Net Trap

Commonly targeted Species: accipiters, medium/large buteos, small falcons, owls and eagles

(Miller and Schlieps 2021). The bow net trap has been used to capture most raptor species in

North America, including red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis), short-eared owls (Asio

flammeus), snowy owls (Bubo scandiacus), American kestrels (Falco sparverius), and eagles

(Haliaeetus leucocephalus and Aquila chrysaetos); additional permitting required for eagles

(Eagle Act, 16 U.S. Code § 668c).

Description

The modern bow net trap (in concept and design) was originally developed in the Far East (likely in

China) from the Chinese clap bow trap (Bub 1991). The modern bow net trap was likely first developed

and employed in Europe (Meredith 1943).

The modern bow net trap consists of two semi-circular bows made

from light metal (e.g., aluminum), fiberglass poles, or plastic water

piping with nylon netting strung loosely between them and attached

to the bows. The two bows of the trap are connected at their bases

with hinges and springs, which provide the mechanism for the trap

to close. The lower bow is fixed to the ground using stakes or other

means, and the upper bow is pulled over the lower stationary bow

and latched into position. The attractant (e.g., bait or lure animal)

is placed in the center of radius of the trap. When a raptor lands in

the proper location, the trap is triggered mechanically (e.g., a

person pulls a trigger line [Meredith 1943]) or electronically (e.g.,

by a remote-control unit [Jackman et al. 1994]). Bow nets with a 5

foot diameter are useful for most situations, although large bow

nets with a 10 foot diameter are commercially available for use in

live-capturing eagles and other large-bodied raptors.

Variations of the modern bow net trap include the E-Z catch trap

(commercially available), the spring net trap (Kenward et al. 1983),

the automatic live-trap for raptors (Tordoff 1954), and the German

butterfly trap. These variations are self-triggering (that is, the raptor sets the trap off when it lands on or

disturbs the bait (e.g., carrion) or attempts to get to the lure animal(s).

General use/set criteria

Bow net traps are particularly useful for reducing the presence of raptors in large areas (such as an

airfield) where raptors are actively foraging. Individual raptors (e.g., snowy owls) are often targeted

using bow net traps by setting up near where a bird is located. Bow net traps are particularly useful in

minimizing the chances of non-target catches.

Lures: rock pigeons (Columba livia) European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris), house mice (Mus musculus),

hamsters (Cricetinae) and gerbils (Gerbillus spp.). Rock pigeons (Columba livia), European starlings

(Sturnus vulgaris), and small rodents are good lures because of their size, activity level (movement is

Photo: USDA, Wildlife Services. Bow net

set at airport with

small rodent lure.

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

important for attracting hawks and owls), non-protected species status, and ease of care. One or more

lures should be placed in a bait cage or tethered to an anchor to increase their movement and

attractiveness. Using different-colored pigeons creates an additional attractiveness for raptors. The bow

net trap should be placed in a location that allows for good visibility. Migratory birds may not be used

as a lure without appropriate permitting (MBTA, 16 U.S.C. §§ 703–712.).

Trap check:

● Continuous monitoring

Unless the trap being used is self-triggering, these traps must be monitored continuously as the trapper

activates the trap to capture the bird (either with a manual or electronic trigger). Self-triggering bow net

type traps need to be checked at least every three hours or more frequently as weather conditions and

other factors dictate. Bow net traps can be monitored in person, by camera, or by other remote-sensing

technology such as trap transponders. For the welfare of the bird, it is critical to ensure the raptor is

centered in the bow net. If the raptor is large with respect to the size of the bow net ensure that its wings

are closed just prior to capture. Raptors can be seriously injured or killed if struck while the trap is

closing.

References

Bloom, P. H., W. S. Clark, and J. W. Kidd. 2007. Capture techniques. Pages 221–236 in Bird, D. M.,

and K. L. Bildstein, editors. Raptor research and management techniques. Hancock House

Publishers, Blaine, Washington, USA.

Bub, H. 1991. (Translated by F. Hamerstrom and K. Wuertz-Schaefer). Bird trapping and Bird

Banding; A handbook for trapping methods all over the world. Cornell University Press, Ithaca,

New York, USA.

Jackman, R. E., W. G. Hunt, D. E. Driscoll, and F. J. Lapsansky. 1994. Refinements to selective

trapping techniques: a radio-controlled bow net and power snare for bald and golden eagles.

Journal of Raptor Research 28:268–273.

Kenward, R. E., M. Karlbom, and V. Marcström. 1983. The price of success in goshawk trapping.

Journal of Raptor Research 17:84–91.

Meredith, R. L. 1943. Methods, ancient, medieval, and modern for the capture of falcons and other

birds of prey. Pages 433–499 in Wood, C. A. and F. M. Fyfe, editors. The art of falconry.

Stanford University Press, Stanford, California, USA.

Miller, E. A., and J. Schlieps, editors. 2021. Standards for Wildlife Rehabilitation.

National Wildlife Rehabilitators Association: Bloomington, MN. 419 pages.

Tordoff, H. B. 1954. An automatic live-trap for raptorial birds. Journal of Wildlife Management

18:281–284.

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

2b. Specialized Capture

Methods

2b.1 Dho-gaza

Commonly targeted Species:

medium/large buteos, small/medium

falcons and small/medium/large owls

(Miller and Schlieps 2021).

Lures: great horned owls (Bubo

virginianus), house sparrows (Passer

domesticus), European starlings

(Sturnus vulgaris), rock pigeons

(Columba livia), small rodents ), and

rodents such as mice (Mus musculus),

hamsters (Cricetinae) and gerbils

(Gerbillus spp.).

Migratory birds, live

or mounted, may not be used as lures

without appropriate permitting (MBTA,

16 U.S.C. §§ 703–712.).

The dho-gaza trap consists of a nylon net (see sizes below) stretced between two poles (Bloom et al.

2007). The net is attached to poles with a “break away” or other device on the side between the net and

pole such as a clothespin or paper clip. The net should fall away from or slide down the poles when a

raptor flies into the net. A line with an attached weight is fastened to a lower corner of the net to secure

it. Birds generally approach into the wind so the net should be set up cross wind (e.g., at a right angle)

to the prevailing wind with lure on the opposite side. Trap specifications for targeted raptors: large

raptors – 7 feet × 18 foot, 4 inch mesh net; medium raptors – 2 foot × 4–5 feet, 4 inch mesh net; and for

small raptors - 2 foot × 4–5 feet, 2.5-inch mesh net.

References

Bloom, P. H., W. S. Clark, and J. W. Kidd. 2007. Capture techniques. Pages 221–236 in Bird, D. M.,

and K. L. Bildstein, editors. Raptor research and management techniques. Hancock House

Publishers, Blaine, Washington, USA.

Miller, E. A., and J. Schlieps, editors. 2021. Standards for Wildlife Rehabilitation.

National Wildlife Rehabilitators Association: Bloomington, MN. 419 pages.

Photo: USDA, Wildlife Services. Dho-gaza deployed with a small

bow net trap.

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

2b.2 Modified Australian crow trap

Commonly targeted species: crows (Corvus spp.), common ravens (Corvus corax), magpies (Pica

spp.). Modified to catch starlings (Sturnus vulgaris), blackbird spp., sparrow spp. and other passerines

(Miller and Schlieps 2021).

Lures: captured target birds, food/water

The modified Australian crow trap is a cage style,

multi-capture trap with a wooden frame and wire

sides. The “drop-in” V top entrance is modified to a

1.75 inches. opening to target starlings/passerines. See

the link in references for trap specifications and

construction (Gadd 1996, Johnson and Glahn 1994).

The trap is best used in an area with high target species

activity and/or when the target species is starting to

flock, as the attractiveness (thus effectiveness) of the

trap increases as more individuals are captured and

remain in the trap thereby increasing interest in the

trap. It is important to provide regular and adequate

care (perches, food, and water) for captured birds.

References

Gadd, Pierre Jr. Use Of The Modified Australian Crow Trap For The Control Of Depredating Birds In

Sonoma County. 1996. Proceedings of the Seventeenth Vertebrate Pest Conference 1996. 20.

https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/vpc17/20

Johnson, Ron J. and James F. Glahn, European Starlings. 1994. The Handbook: Prevention and Control of

Wildlife Damage. 72. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/72

Miller, E. A., and J. Schlieps, editors. 2021. Standards for Wildlife Rehabilitation.

National Wildlife Rehabilitators Association: Bloomington, MN. 419 pages.

Jess Burton

Photo: USGS, Bird Banding Lab. Modified

Australian Crow Trap.

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

2b.3 Waterfowl swim-in trap

Commonly targeted species: waterfowl.

Lures: bait (corn, milo, grains)

The waterfowl swim-in trap is a baited trap generally consisting of welded wire supported by rods with

netting or chicken wire covering the top. Waterfowl swim through a funnel opening that allows the bird

to easily pass through into the trap. The tapered access makes exiting the trap difficult. Extra caution

should be used to prevent predation as birds are readily visible once trapped. Adding a float or platform

inside the trap area is recommended to give the birds an option to rest. If available, existing structures

such as stumps can be used as a resting structure.

References:

North, Norman R. and Randy J. Hicks. 2017. North American Bander’s Manual for Waterfowl (Family –

Anatidea).

North American Banding Council. (41 Pages).

Photo: USDA, Wildlife Services. Waterfowl in a baited swim-in trap.

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

2b.4 Net Launcher/Cannon Net

Commonly targeted species: any bird species that can be baited or approached.

Lures: pre-bait/bait, lure animal (depending on target species)

Net launchers are stationary devices that use a blank rifle cartridge(s), compressed air, or gunpowder

(i.e., an explosive charge) to propel a net over an individual or flock of birds. These devices propel

heavy metal weights attached to the net over the intended target(s). Practice and experience using these

devices is essential to maintain the safety of both the target birds and the personnel involved. Because

rocket and cannon nets involve the use of explosives, individuals should be highly trained and certified

prior to the use of these tools.

Photo: USDA, Wildlife Services.Net being deployed for a

demonstration.

Photo: USDA, Wildlife Services. USDA Biologist setting net

for deployment.

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

2b.5 Net Gun

Commonly targeted species: any bird species that can be baited or approached.

Lures: bait (depends on target species).

Net guns are similar to net launchers but are smaller and mobile, allowing the user to strategically target

single birds (e.g. those causing problems). Net guns use compressed gas (e.g., carbon dioxide) or a

blank rifle cartridge to deploy the net. To be used successfully and effectively, net guns require

considerable training and practice. The operator should take care removing the bird from the net and

placing it in an appropriate carrier.

References

Caudill, D., G. Caudill, K. D. Meyer, G. M. Kent, J. Tarwater and E. Butler. A Pneumatic Net Gun

Method for Capture of Great Egrets (Ardea alba), Waterbirds, 37(4), 457-461, (1 December

2014).

Photos: USDA, Wildlife Services. Net gun after net has been

deployed (Above). Net gun being used to capture a Canada

goose

(Branta canadensis) (Top Right). Hand-held net gun

example (Bottom Right).

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

2b.6 Padded Foothold Trap

Commonly targeted species: pelicans (Pelecanus spp.), herons (Ardea spp.), cormorants

(Phalacrocorax spp.), new world vultures (Cathartes aura and Coragyps atratus), bald eagles

(Haliaeetus leucocephalus), golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos), and common ravens (Corvus corax).

Lures: fish/carrion (state laws may apply) or feeding/loafing sites (blind set)

Foothold traps can be modified for safe use in capturing eagles by reducing spring tension, adding

padding to the trap’s jaws, and installing multiple swivels and springs between the trap and anchor. For

eagles, trap size No. 2 (no larger than No. 3) can be used if modified appropriately. Multiple traps are

generally placed around a food source. Padded footholds can also be used to target pelicans, cormorants

and herons (King et al. 1998). Modify the trap by replacing springs with weaker #1.5 trap coil springs

(For details on traps, see Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies 2006). To minimize potential injury

when the captured bird lunges, replace the factory chain with aircraft cable and an elastic shock

cord. Traps can be set on transects in areas with high bird activity. Eagles are protected by the

Migratory Bird Treaty Act (MBTA, 16 U.S.C. §§ 703-712) and receive additional protection under the

Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act enacted in 1940 (Eagle Act, 16 U.S. Code § 668c).

Photo: USDA, Wildlife Serivces. Padded foothold traps can be set around white-tailed deer (Odocoileus

virginianus

) carrion to capture eagles (left.) This trapping technique requires constant onsite visual

monitoring.

Close up view of padded foothold trap set to capture eagles (top right.) Foothold modified to

safely capture an eagle. Note multiple swivels and spring i

n between trap and anchor (bottom right.)

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

References

Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies. 2006. Best Management Practices for Trapping in the United

States. AFWA 2006. https://www.wildlife.state.nh.us/hunting/documents/trapping-bmps-

intro.pdf

Bloom, P. H., W. S. Clark, and J. W. Kidd. 2007. Capture techniques. Pages 221–236 in Bird, D. M.,

and K. L. Bildstein, editors. Raptor research and management techniques. Hancock House

Publishers, Blaine, Washington, USA.

King, D. T., J.D. Paulson, D.J. LeBlanc and K. Bruce. 1998. Two capture techniques for American

white pelicans and great blue herons. Colonial Waterbirds 21(2): 258-260.

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

2b.7 Vulture Walk-in Trap

Commonly targeted species: black and turkey vultures (Coragyps atratus and Cathartes aura).

Lures: live or fake vultures and/or carrion

Most any carrion can be used with an emphasis on quantity

(e.g., the trap must contain enough carrion for it to be

attractive) to increase effectiveness. A state permit might

be needed if using a game species.

Vultures are trapped to alleviate livestock depredation

(primarily cattle, but also sheep, pigs, and goats), to

address various types of property damage (both residential

and non-residential buildings, structural components of

buildings, motor vehicles, boats, farm and construction

machinery, electrical/utility structures, vegetation

including shrubs/trees/turf, etc…), to protect human health

and safety and to prevent wildlife hazards at airports.

When addressing vulture damage, an integrated approach

should be used that includes lethal and non-lethal techniques. In most cases, non-lethal methods (e.g.,

habitat manipulation – mainly trash/carcass management, harassment, effigies, etc.) and/or harassment

shooting coupled with effigies and limited lethal removal by firearm can be used prior to trapping

efforts. Trapping is labor intensive and thus generally not the first management choice. Traps can be

used to target the depredating bird(s) by setting enclosures on site or adjacent to where the damage is

occurring. Managing the length of trapping and baiting must be done thoughtfully to prevent creating a

food source that exacerbates the depredation problem.

There are several styles of walk-in traps that are effective for live capturing vultures (Bub 1978). The

size of the cage depends on the number of vultures targeted for trapping. The enclosure can be square,

rectangular, or circular. To catch 1-2 birds, traditional large cage traps (dog size) can be used. When

trapping larger flocks, enclosures can be made with livestock panels; when the trap is set the dimensions

are 30 feet Long x 10 feet. Width x 6 feet High. Netting or wire should be used to cover the enclosure’s

top to prevent vultures from flying out. Traps should be staked and tied down to ensure they are stable

and secured. Once trapping is complete, remove all food.

Birds are contained in the enclosure via a drop gate/door, a funnel door, or drop-in entrance. Drop

gate/doors can be rigged to deploy remotely and trapping programs often employ cellular (real-time)

camera technology to monitor when to close the trap. A funnel door style trap has a funnel-shaped door

on one side of the enclosure that allows birds to enter. Vultures walk into the trap through a narrowing

funnel that is difficult to exit once inside. Drop-in entrances are made by creating gaps in the top of the

trap that are 8-11 in. wide, allowing vultures to “drop in” to access food.

Photo: USDA, Wildlife Services. Vultures (Coragyps

atratus and Cathartes aura)

in walk-in style trap.

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

Ideally the site should be pre-baited (2-3 weeks) to let birds acclimate to the trap. Success may be

increased by placing the trap close to a roost or near perching trees that allow the birds to stage prior to

entering the trap. Secluded trap sites may produce better results.

Capturing non-target species can be avoided using remote cameras to monitor and close the trap door

(i.e., the door is closed only when targets are present in the trap). If captured, non-targets should be

quickly removed.

Trap Check

Traps should be physically checked daily or monitored with a remote camera.

Traps should be predator proof and be provisioned with enough food and water to last between trap

checks (Bub 1991). Remotely operated gates can be used while crew is onsite to reduce time birds are

held. The longer birds are in a trap, the greater the chance they will escape or may be injured. Traps

should be placed in a shaded area or fabric can be placed on top of the trap to provide protection. Water

should be available inside the trap and perching and/ or roosting devices can be added if birds will be

held longer than eight hours.

References

Bub, H. 1991. (Translated by F. Hamerstrom and K. Wuertz-Schaefer). Bird trapping and Bird

Banding; A handbook for trapping methods all over the world. Cornell University Press, Ithaca,

New York, USA.

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

2b.8 Mist Net

Commonly targeted species: most birds can be targeted with mist-netting techniques when appropriate

mesh size is used.

Lures: food, recorded calls, decoys, or travel corridors to nests or openings Mist nets are one of the

most common trapping techniques for capturing birds for banding and research purposes. Mist nests

may be appropriate in certain, unique depredation situations. Use of mist nests for depredation should

target capture of specific individuals. Mist nets consist of at least two poles with specially designed mist

nets secured between them. The set up resembles a volleyball net. Poles must be tall enough to support

the net and thin enough to easily push into the ground (or use supports; usually good poles to use have a

minimum height of 10 ft. and diameter of 1 in. or less). Use of mist nets is especially effective for

passerines. Nets can be sized and set to target most

any bird species including raptors. Be sure to

choose the appropriate mesh size for targeted birds

(Bloom et al. 2007). Mist nets need to be checked

frequently. Close nets properly when not in use.

References

Bloom, P. H., W. S. Clark, and J. W. Kidd. 2007. Capture techniques. Pages 221–236 in Bird, D. M.,

and K. L. Bildstein, editors. Raptor research and management techniques. Hancock House

Publishers, Blaine, Washington, USA.

Photo: USDA, Wildlife Services. Biologist removing

immature Cooper’s hawk

(Accipiter cooperii) from mist net

set to capture raptors.

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

3. HANDLING

All migratory birds must be handled and cared for in a humane and healthful manner (50 CFR 13.41).

This includes utilizing appropriate trap and methodology, extracting birds from traps, retaining in

possession, transporting, and releasing birds back to the wild.

3a. Trap checks

Birds must be properly cared for once captured. The longer a bird is in a trap, the more opportunity for

the bird to injure itself, be predated upon, escape, or for other unforeseen situations to arise. For live-

trapping methods where continuous, in-person monitoring is not required, traps may be checked

remotely using cameras, trap transponders, or other technology. Hazing techniques should not be used

directly around bird traps, as active hazing of a confined bird is considered inhumane. It is important to

follow all migratory bird permit conditions (i.e., trap check times).

3b. Extracting migratory birds

Birds must be handled with care by personnel who are trained and understand bird physiology. Bird

physiology is fundamentally different from mammals. Greater care is needed to prevent damage to

feathers, breaking of bones, and to ensure the ability to breathe. To protect yourself and the bird, always

wear appropriate personal protection equipment when handling birds, especially raptors. To extract a

birds from a trap:

1. Consider wearing gloves (for handler’s personal safety from raptor talons and spread of

disease). If possible, position your hands along the side of the body and gently press to

secure the wings of the captured bird(s).

2. Always be aware of the bird’s feet. Use appropriate hold for the particular species (Arent

2007).

3. Ensure the nasal openings remain clear and open. Ensure that trap netting is kept away from

the eyes and detangled from the tongue. To aid in calming birds, place clean fabric, such as a

towel, pillowcase, or t-shirt to cover the head. Trained personnel may use hoods.

4. Conduct injury evaluation and if authorized banding/marking.

5. For transporting raptors, place the bird feet first into a top-loading carrier. If possible,

position the bird on its side and roll the bird into a standing position as you let go to control

the lid. This technique will help prevent the raptor from prematurely exiting the container. If

placing a raptor into a front-loading structure such as a plastic pet carrier, place the bird

head-first to protect its tail feathers.

3c. Evaluating birds for injury or disease

Wildlife professionals regularly interact with raptors in field settings, including live-capturing and

handling birds for purposes of scientific collection, banding and marking, depredation mitigation, and

other practices. Occasionally raptors may be found with indication of a disease or injury, or they may

become injured during these procedures - leaving investigators or wildlife technicians unsure about how

to effectively handle the situation and with the question of whether the injury or disease condition such

that the bird should be released (with or without minor treatment), transported for veterinary care and

rehabilitation, or be euthanized? Beyond compliance with regulatory issues and permit restrictions,

wildlife professionals should employ the fate that is in the bird’s best interest (i.e., what is most

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

humane).

The Minnesota Raptor Center and USDA APHIS Wildlife Services have developed a Raptor Trauma

Scoring System using both pictures and text to describe the most common traumatic injuries with

discriminating criteria for grading the extent of injuries and prognoses. This resource, along with other

information in this document, could help personnel triage raptors in the field and allow them to

determine whether to release, transport, or euthanize a bird. Coupled with training in the recognition of

common injuries and illness, basic wound care and bandaging, and best practices for transportation and

euthanasia, wildlife professionals can be better prepared for unforeseen situations, have confidence in

their decision making, and overall improve the welfare of raptors.

3d. Banding and auxiliary marking

Banding is the practice of applying a metal U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) issued band (with unique

number) or a tag on some part of the bird, usually the leg. Consider banding birds before releasing.

Bands and band recovery (reporting a band) allow biologists to learn about bird migration, survival

rates, life span, habitat use, and other life history information. When translocating birds for depredation

purposes, banding is extremely useful to determine whether relocated birds are returning to the trap site.

This can help inform decisions about appropriate relocation distances.

A Federal Bird Banding and Marking Permit (50 CFR 21.70) is required by the BBL whenever someone

wants to band or apply a marker on a wild bird protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act (MBTA, 16

U.S.C. §§ 703–712) or the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act (Eagle Act, 16 U.S. Code § 668c).

These federal banding permits can also authorize the use of auxiliary markers (i.e., color leg bands, radio

transmitters, flags, and tags) along with federal bird bands to allow for identification of individuals at a

distance. Additionally, permit holders can request permission for the collection of blood samples,

feather samples, and mouth swabs from birds that are also banded and/or marked. The USGS BBL,

Eastern Ecological Science Center, handles all banding and marking applications.

USGS general permit information can be found here: General Permit Information | U.S. Geological

Survey (usgs.gov)

Federal bird banding permittees are required to manage their data for banded birds and electronically

submit their data to the BBL as soon as data is collected. The BBL provides an application to facilitate

the transmission of banding data to the BBL.

Consult the BBL Bander Portal for the application: BBL Bander Portal

3d.1 Reporting bands

If you catch a bird that is already banded, the band should be reported online at USGS Bird Banding

Laboratory (www.reportband.gov). Reporting bands helps the BBL populate more complete data sets

on bird behavior, ecology, and survival. Effort should be made to report all recovered bands.

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

3e. Carriers & transport

This section regarding carriers and transport for captured birds applies to all dispositions except release

at the capture location and euthanasia.

3e.1 Carriers

The goal when housing live birds is to provide maximum comfort and well-being in a safe and secure

manner. Appropriate carrier for transporting birds depends on the duration the bird will be in the

enclosure, bird species, and other factors (e.g., environmental conditions, disturbance). Containers must

be clean, secure, and allow airflow. Corrugated plastic folding pet crates are an excellent option, as they

are properly ventilated, smooth-walled, easy to clean, and fold flat for storage. Other options are

smooth-walled pet carriers or properly ventilated cardboard boxes or plastic tubs.

The following is an overview of factors to consider in transport carriers for captured birds. For a

detailed description of requirements, see “Chapter 9: Transporting Raptors” in Arent (2007).

1. Size. Transport carriers should be large enough that birds both do not touch any part of the

enclosure when wings are closed and can make positional adjustments. Birds should have

sufficient head and tail clearance and ability to move without damage to feathers. While

enclosures being too small is often the concern, too large an enclosure can result in excessive

activity and lead to injury. In general, recommended carrier sizes are as follows:

a. Small raptors (e.g., American kestrel, sharp-shinned hawk): 12”L x 8”W x 10”H

b. Medium raptors (e.g., Cooper’s hawk; peregrine falcon): 20”L x 12”W x 14”H

c. Large raptors (e.g., Harris’s hawk, red-tailed hawk): 26”L x 14”W x 14”W

d. Extra Large raptors (e.g.,black vulture, osprey): 30”L x 14”W x 20”H

e. Eagles (i.e., bald or golden): 34”L x 20”W x 22”H

2. Material. Carriers must have smooth interiors. Tight fitting outdoor carpet can be used to line

the bottom of the carrier. This provides the bird something to grasp during transport if perches

are not available. Never use wire cages as wire can cause serious injury and/or feather damage.

Visual stimulation should be minimized to keep the bird calmer. If a plastic or soft-sided dog

carrier is used, cover the door and sides with loose newspaper, dark netting (e.g. mosquito

netting), or burlap to allow for air flow.

3. Supplies. Food, water, and perches are not generally recommended in carriers for transporting

untrained birds. If a bird is not sitting comfortably and is a perching species, perches may be

offered. If transport is more than 8 hours, ensure there is an opportunity for water.

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

4. Transport Vehicles. If the carrier has a perch, place the carrier so the bird is perpendicular to the

line of motion; this is easier for birds to balance. Birds can easily overheat, especially confined

in carriers as air is more stagnant. It is important to ensure the temperature in a carrier does not

exceed 80° F. In general, birds in carriers should not be left unattended in uninsulated spaces

during warm weather. In warm weather birds should be in shaded, insulated spaces, preferably

an air-conditioned vehicle. The use of a thermometer to monitor ambient temperature near

where the birds are kept are encouraged.

5. Do not house more than one bird in a single carrier. Exceptions include flocking species and

nestlings/non-flighted young; Always have appropriate gloves for handling the birds and contact

information of one or more federally permitted rehabilitators in case you have questions.

3e.2 Duration in carriers

It is best to release birds within 24 hours of capture. Birds may remain in transport carriers up to 72

hours. Any birds held longer than 72 hours should be housed in an enclosure as described below.

3e.3 Enclosures

When raptors need to be held longer than 72 hours prior to release, it is best to house them in an

enclosure. Any enclosure other than carriers must be approved as part of a federal depredation permit

(MBTA, 50 CFR 21.00). Enclosures should be designed and sized in accordance with “Release

Conditioning” in Miller and Schlieps (2021), including being predator and vermin-proof and free from

disturbance by humans, pets, or other animals.

Enclosures may be constructed on-site, constructed off-site, or loaned from another permittee (such as a

falconer or rehabilitation permit). The following information must be listed on the depredation permit if

enclosures are used (See section 5b for more details):

1. Location of enclosure (e.g., physical address)

2. Description of enclosure (e.g., dimensions, materials, photographs)

3. Qualified subpermittee(s) who will be providing care for the bird

Photo: USDA, Wildlife Services. Examples of carriers suitable for raptor transport. (Left)

traditional pet carrier. (Right) Corrugated plastic carriers. These come in a variety of sizes and

collapse, making for easy storage. Carriers can also be custom-built for raptors. These name brands

are not endorsed.

Walmart.com

Fluteplast.com

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

3e.4 Other Considerations

Subpermittees, including individuals who hold other permits (e.g., rehabilitators or falconers), must be

authorized under the depredation permit to care for depredating birds (See section 5b for further details).

This can be on the face of the permit or with a subpermittee designation letter. All birds remain under

the depredation permit authority until they are released, irrespective of where they are housed. It is the

responsibility of the depredation permit holder to appropriately compensate subpermittees for the costs

of care (e.g., staff time, food, cleaning, etc.).

Costs, including transport, care, conditioning, and release of birds, should be the responsibility of the

depredation permittee. Permittees are also responsible for costs associated with raptors injured during

capturing, transport, or translocation.

States may require permits for or otherwise restrict crossing state lines for the purposes of translocating

migratory birds. Coordinate with the appropriate state agencies regarding necessary authorizations prior

to initiating trapping.

“Any live wildlife possessed under a permit must be maintained under humane and healthful conditions”

(50 CFR 13.41). This applies to any bird in hand from the time it is live-trapped to the time of final

disposition. The goal when housing live birds is to provide comfort and well-being in a safe and secure

manner. When birds are being transported for release, housing requirements differ depending on the

duration a bird is in captivity.

4. DISPOSITION OF MIGRATORY BIRDS

When capturing, handling or disposing of a bird is under consideration, the desired outcome for the

bird(s) should be determined prior to initiating capture. Personnel in charge of capturing should be

familiar with the range of possible dispositions and determine an intended outcome and disposition for

the bird(s) given the circumstances that warrant capture. Once an individual bird is captured, key

questions should be asked to aid in deciding the most appropriate disposition for that individual. See

Section 5.b.2 for guidance on determining disposition. Please note the guidance in Section 4a-4d of this

report are specific to raptors.

4a. Non-target species

Non-target birds (birds not listed on the permit) that are captured and not associated with the conflict

must be checked for injuries, banded (if a bird bander holding a permit and appropriately sized bands

are available), and immediately released on-site. If the non-target individual is associated with a

conflict, contact federal and state permitting offices to discuss possible solutions.

4b. Options for disposition

Common types of disposition of birds include releasing on-site, transporting for medical care,

temporarily holding (less than 72 hours) and translocating away from the capture location, placing with

an authorized entity, or euthanizing the bird.

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

4b.1 Release

Whenever possible, live-captured birds should be released into the wild. This includes releasing without

transport (e.g., on-site of capture) or with transport (e.g., released at a different location). See section

4.c for determining disposition.

4b.2 Medical care

Licensed veterinarians and wildlife rehabilitators are federally authorized to provide medical care to

migratory birds. Generally, a licensed wildlife rehabilitator is the best place to take sick, injured, or

orphaned birds. The National Wildlife Rehabilitators Association (NWRA) has an online reference to

locate a rehabilitator within each state (NWRA Find A Rehabilitator Link). Licensed veterinarians may

accept and triage birds if transport to a wildlife rehabilitator is not feasible.

The medical care provider is responsible for determining the fate of the injured bird. If birds are suitable

for release within 24-hours, the permittee may release the bird. If birds require care for longer than 24-

hours, the bird may be admitted to rehabilitative care. When being admitted for rehabilitative care, the

care of the bird is formally transferred from the jurisdiction of the depredation or scientific collection

permit to the jurisdiction of the rehabilitation permit and this change in jurisdiction should be noted on

the respective annual reports. If the injury to a bird is due to the actions of the permittee, the permittee

should off-set the costs of rehabilitative care. Birds transferred to rehabilitative care count toward the

lethal take under the appropriate permit (50 CFR 13.41).

Live-captured birds that do not require rehabilitative care (i.e., are not injured) may NOT be transferred

to a rehabilitator. However, rehabilitators may provide enclosures and/or care as sub-permittees under a

permit (See Section 4e.4).

4b.3 Placement

Releasing a captured bird may not alleviate the conflict or be feasible. One option to consider is

placement. Placement is the act of transferring a bird to a permanent captive facility. Authorization is

required for placement. The success of transferring a bird or placing a bird in a captive facility varies

with certain species and age classes. This option must be discussed with the appropriate USFWS MBP

Office prior to conducting any live-capture activities. Birds transferred to placement count toward the

lethal take under the appropriate permit (MBTA, 50 CFR 13.41).

4b.4 Educational use

Non-releasable birds may be placed with a federally permitted educator for educational use (MBTA, 50

CFR 21.27). Authorization must be requested from the Migratory Bird Permit Office PRIOR to placing

a bird as non-releasable. The USFWS MBP Offices can assist in identifying potential educators.

4b.5 Falconry use

Some states allow the placement of raptors with state-permitted falconers. Placement counts towards

the wild take authorization for the falconer. Most states require prior approval before the transfer

occurs. Contact your state falconry permit specialist for more information.

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

4b.6 Euthanasia

Not all individuals birds are suitable for life in captivity. Certain species and temperaments are prone to

stress and injury in captivity. In those circumstances, euthanasia may the most humane disposition for a

live-captured bird, rather than placement in captivity. To ensure euthanasia methods are humane and

properly selected, we strongly recommend following the American Veterinary Medical Association

(AVMA) guidelines for the euthanasia of animals: AVMA guidelines for the euthanasia of animals

Birds euthanized count toward the lethal take under the depredation permit (MBTA, 50 CFR 13.41)..

All remains of euthanized birds must be disposed of in accordance with the permit conditions. Permits

typically authorize donating to an entity authorized to receive migratory birds or their parts (e.g.,

science, education, or non-eagle repository) as well as destroying in accordance with federal, state,

and/or local laws and ordinances. Permittees may request authorization to retain bird remains for

training purposes and/or use as effigies.

4c. Determining disposition (in all scenarios)

There are many factors that should be considered to determine the disposition of captured migratory

birds. The following list highlights questions to address. The answers will help guide the decision

process for disposition. This list is not intended to be all inclusive. There may be additional factors to

consider.

4c.1 Resource protected/urgency

What is the resource being protected and the urgency to protect that resource by disposing of a captured

migratory bird? It is most important to ensure birds are removed for the following reasons:

● To protect a high value resource, such as human life

● To stop an established pattern with evidence of damage (not just a threat)

● To stop damage when it is extensive relative to others experiencing the same type of damage

4c.2 Species

What is the status of the species being taken? It is important to protect birds that are/have the following

status or background:

● Species of national conservation concern or similar state or tribal status

● Species with restricted or declining local, regional, or national populations

● Species of cultural or local significance

● Species that have shown success with mitigation translocation in the past

4c.3 Seasonality

In what season is the individual bird captured? Consider the following factors to make this

determination (Bowden et al. 2018, Washburn et al. 2021):

● Migratory seasons – translocation is most likely to be successful during these transition seasons.

● Breeding season – Translocation of sub-adult birds may be successful. Translocation of adults is

unlikely to be successful because adults frequently return to the capture location (Pullins et al.

2018). Translocation of a breeding adult that is tending a a nest will likely result in the death of

the eggs or chicks.

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

● Wintering season – translocation of birds outside of migration and breeding season is dependent

upon what resource is bringing them to the area and the abundance of that resource elsewhere

(e.g., food, shelter, etc.)

4c.4 Age

What is the age of the individual bird captured? Consider the following in determining age of a captured

bird:

● Is it possible to assign an age class (e.g., plumage or morphometric measurements)?

● Is it a juvenile or sub-adult?

Published research has shown that the age of the bird often influences the probability that a raptor will

return to the capture location following a mitigation translocation event (Schafer and Washburn 2016,

Biteman et al. 2018, Pullins et al. 2018). An adult is more likely to have an established territory that

would compel it to return to the site of capture than a juvenile (e.g., hatching-year bird). It is essential

for permit holders to determine if there is any current research on return rates for each species of

interest.

4c.5 Sex

Is the migratory bird a male or female?

Is it possible to correctly assign the individual birds to sex classes (using plumage or morphometric

measurements)?

For raptors, published research has shown that the sex of the bird does not influence the probability that

it will return to the capture location following a mitigation translocation event (Pitlik and Washburn

2016, Biteman et al. 2018, Pullins et al. 2018), but this might not be true of all migratory bird species. It

is essential for permit holders to determine if there is any current research on return rates for each

species of interest.

4c.6 The individual

The overall health and disposition of the individual bird should be considered (i.e. welfare). Birds are

less likely to be successfully translocated if the following occurs:

● The bird has a pre-existing injury or condition that would limit survival

● The bird sustained an injury during capture that would limit survival

4d. Release considerations

Much remains unknown on how best to release birds that have been capture and the fate of released

birds. Agency personnel should balance what is best for the individual bird, the migratory bird resource,

and management of the depredation problem (Washburn et al. 2021). There are several tradeoffs that

must be considered and require flexibility and adaptive management. Consult appropriate land

management and state agencies to concur on release locations to ensure there are no concerns.

4d.1 Distance

Intuition suggests that the further a depredating raptor is taken from the capture location, the lower the

probability that the bird would return following a mitigation translocation event. However, published

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

research with several common raptors demonstrates that is not accurate for many species (Pullins et al.

2018). Examples of the minimal distances to move problematic birds include 50 miles for red-tailed

hawks and 15 miles for American kestrels and Cooper’s hawks. It is essential for permit holders to

determine if there is any current research on return rates for each species of interest. Transporting a bird

farther than necessary is not good for the individual, as they spend longer in captivity. In addition,

driving longer distances than necessary may take staff away from hazing, trap monitoring, and other

activities to protect migratory bird resources.

4d.2 Habitat

Translocated individuals should be released in areas dominated by vegetation communities and

landscape features that are known to support the species of raptor being translocated. General habitat

preferences for all North American raptor species can be found in the Birds of the World species

accounts (Billerman et. al 2022; Birds of the World). Suitable release sites contain plentiful suitable

prey and must be distant from risks and activities that can stimulate nuisance behavior (e.g., airports,

poultry farms). Release sites are almost always already occupied by conspecifics; however, ideally,

release sites should not be occupied by territorial breeding pairs of the same species, as these are likely

to quickly displace translocated raptors.

4d.3 Aversive conditioning

Aversive conditioning MUST NOT be used for birds. Aversive conditioning (e.g., “roughing up”) a

confined animal is a mammal trapping practice that is used and sometimes may be appropriate for

mammals. The physiology of birds is fundamentally different from mammals making them more prone

to injury. It is easy to break bones or damage talons, eyes, or feathers, all of which impair or prevent a

bird from surviving upon release. Additionally, many species of birds are different from mammals in

their drive to return to certain sites, such as natal sites. The drive to return cannot be disrupted with

aversive conditioning. There is no scientific research demonstrating a benefit to this practice for raptor

damage management. Until such time as it is scientifically supported with a humane methodology,

aversive conditioning must not be used.

4d.4 Display of birds

Birds may not be displayed to the public unless you are not delaying the release of the bird and use

video equipment, barriers, or other methods to reduce noise and human exposure at a level the birds

would normally encounter in their habitat (MBTA, 50 CFR 13.41).. Display activities beyond what is

described requires additional authorization/permitting from the USFWS. You may not use any

equipment or methods that would cause additional stress or harm to the bird. Compliance with the

AWA must occur if using live birds for research, teaching, testing, experimentation, or exhibition

purposes (AWA, 7 U.S.C. § 2143; U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2013; 9 CFR 2.31).

5. PERMITTING

Most species of native birds are federally protected. Over 1,000 species of birds are protected by the

Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 (MBTA, 16 U.S.C. §§ 703-712). The list of migratory birds

protected can be found at 50 CFR 10.13 (10.13 list). A bird is protected if the species is listed, no matter

if an individual bird is ecologically migratory, raised in captivity, or if it is a mutation or hybrid (50 CFR

21.3). The MBTA prohibits the take, possession, transportation, sale, purchase, barter, importation,

exportation, and banding or marking of any migratory bird listed in 50 CFR 10.13. Take is defined as:

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

to pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, trap, capture, collect, or attempt any of these activities (50 CFR

10.12). The MBTA prohibitions extend to live birds as well as all bird parts, nests, and eggs.

Additionally, if using birds for exhibition/teaching purposes, these activities must be authorized on the

USFWS issued permit(s).

Bald eagles and golden eagles receive additional protection under the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection

Act (Eagle Act, 16 U.S. Code § 668c). The Eagle Protection Act prohibits the taking, possession, and

transport of eagles and their parts, nests, and eggs. “Take” is defined in U.S. Code to mean: “pursue,

shoot, shoot at, poison, wound, kill, capture, trap, collect, destroy, molest, or disturb.” “Disturb” is

further defined in 50 CFR 22.3 to mean: “to agitate or bother a bald or golden eagle to a degree that

causes, or is likely to cause, based on the best scientific information available, (1) injury to an eagle, (2)

a decrease in its productivity, by substantially interfering with normal breeding, feeding, or sheltering

behavior, or (3) nest abandonment, by substantially interfering with normal breeding, feeding, or

sheltering behavior.”

USFWS authorization is required for most activities involving capturing, handling or disposition of wild

birds. It is also important to check the state and tribal laws protecting birds to determine their permitting

requirements as well (Link to State Wildlife Offices). Federal permit conditions may differ from state,

tribal and local government permit conditions. When federal, state, tribal, and local government

permits differ, the more restrictive permit conditions must be followed. Consult with your respective

agency/contact.

It is important to note that migratory bird depredation permits are intended to authorize a damage

management action that targets the individual bird(s) that are causing the conflict. Depredation permits

cannot be used for population management.

5a Depredation activities that do not require a permit

5a.1 Harassing migratory birds

A federal permit is not required to harass or scare migratory birds. A federal permit is not required to

haze eagles, unless hazing may disturb eagles (as defined by the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act).

The USFWS does not regulate the methods that may be used to harass migratory birds, except additional

authorization may be required if using unmanned aircraft systems (UAS, e.g., drones) under the

Airborne Hunting Act (50 CFR 19). Consult with the appropriate USFWS MBP Office for details. For

any harassment method, care should be taken to ensure birds are not injured or killed due to harassment

methods. The injury or death of a bird due to harassment constitutes take and is prohibited (MBTA, 50

CFR 21). Always check for potential state-specific requirements or regulations.

5a.2 Destruction and relocation of migratory bird nests that are not in-use

A permit is not required to destroy nests which are not in-use. A permit or other regulatory

authorization is not required under the MBTA to destroy a migratory bird nest that is not in-use,

provided no possession of birds occurs during or after the destruction. A nest not in-use is defined as

one that is empty (no viable eggs or birds), contains non-viable eggs, or is being built but does not yet

have an egg in the nest. This rule does not apply to bald eagle or golden eagle nests because they are

protected under the Bald and Golden Eagle Act (Eagle Act, 16 U.S. Code § 668c). Additional federal

authorization may be required for birds on the List of Endangered and Threatened Species (50 CFR

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

17.11) and/or additional state, territorial, or tribal authorization. There might be state restrictions or

regulations regarding the removal of nests not in-use.

A permit is required to destroy an in-use nest (i.e., nest with eggs or birds). If an in-use nest must be

removed, consult with the local USFWS MBP Office. This action would need to be written into a

permit. A state or tribal permit might be required as well.

5a.3 Depredation, control, and conservation orders

A permit is not required for activities authorized by Depredation Orders, Control Orders, or

Conservation Orders (50 CFR 21 Subpart D). However, many orders require submission of an annual

report (Form 3-2436). A current list of orders can be found on the USFWS website providing FAQ for

the Depredation Permit Application: (Depredation Permit FAQ)

5.b Depredation permits

5b.1 Migratory bird depredation permits - general

The USFWS issues depredation permits to authorize the capture or killing of migratory birds to reduce

damage or loss caused by birds (50 CFR 21.100). Efforts must be made to resolve depredation issues

prior to requesting a depredation permit, including implementation of non-lethal methods. Depredation

permits authorize lethal take and/or capturing as part of an integrated program to resolve a depredation

problem while reducing the need to take birds. State or tribal depredation permits might also be required.

This may include permits for active nests that have young in them. Depredation includes agricultural

damage, private property damage, threats to human health and safety (e.g., airports), and threats to

recovery of protected wildlife. For more information, see the following:

Depredation Permit FAQ

Depredation ePermits Forms

The USFWS utilizes the WS Form 37 (USDA APHIS | Step-by-Step Guide to a Migratory Bird

Depredation Permit) as part of the depredation permit application process. WS will assess each situation

to help determine the need for the permit, the species involved, provide recommendations - both short

and long-term to include methods to address the damage - and the number of migratory birds to be

listed on the permit. All migratory bird permits issued by the USFWS require a WS Form 37 including

those issued to USDA APHIS WS. Applicants interested in obtaining a USFWS migratory bird

depredation permit may contact their respective WS state office to discuss information needed on the

WS Form 37 (USDA APHIS | Contact Wildlife Services).

5b.2 Airport depredation permits

The USFWS has a specific migratory bird permit type called Airport Depredation (3-200-13 - Migratory

Bird – Depredation (servicenowservices.com). These permits are issued under the same regulation and

use the same forms as other depredation permits. However, the Airport Depredation permit has permit

conditions specific to the activities conducted at airports.

An airport is the area of land or water that is used for the landing and takeoff of civil or military aircraft,

including any buildings and facilities. Airport depredation permits are issued to the airport, as the entity

experiencing the depredation. Wildlife Services or other individuals or entities may be identified as sub-

permittees on an airport depredation permit.

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

5b.3 USDAAPHIS Wildlife Services statewide depredation permits

The USFWS also has a specific migratory bird permit type called “Wildlife Services Statewide

Depredation”. These permits are issued under the same regulation and use the same forms as other

depredation permits. Wildlife Services State Offices apply through their respective regional USFWS

offices for these permits. These permits have conditions specific to the activities conducted by USDA

APHIS WS.

USDA APHIS WS may obtain a “statewide depredation permit to cover activities conducted in a

particular state, with the exception of control for human safety purposes at airports” (Guidance for

Issuing Migratory Bird Treaty Act Permits to Federal Agencies USFWS Memorandum 03 August

2001). Most depredation activities conducted at airports for human health and safety purposes should be

conducted under an airport depredation permit issued to the individual airport, although in certain

situations the statewide Wildlife Services Depredation permit may be used.

5b.4 Eagle depredation permits

The USFWS issues Eagle Depredation permits to authorize the hazing or capturing of bald eagles and/or

golden eagles to reduce damage or loss caused (50 CFR 22.100). Depredation includes agricultural

damage (e.g., livestock loss), private property damage, threats to human health and safety (e.g.,

airports), and threats to recovery of protected wildlife. Permits are required to live-capture eagles or if

hazing activities may “disturb” eagles. For more information, see the following:

Eagle Depredation Permit FAQ

Eagle Depredation ePermits Forms

5b.5 Records and reporting

USDA APHIS Wildlife Services and USFWS MBP may request or require record keeping or annual

reporting. This information cold be used to help inform future research, guidance, and conditions.

5c Related permits

There are a variety of state, tribal, and federal permits related to migratory birds. This guidance is not

intended to be all inclusive.

5c.1 Banding and marking permits

A bird banding or marking permit is required to capture migratory birds for banding or marking

purposes (50 CFR 21.70). Permits are issued by the USGS BBL (BBL website). The BBL permits

specific capture techniques and tissue sampling (blood and feather) when these activities are done in

conjunction with banding or marking migratory birds only. The BBL, however, does not permit

depredation or transport/translocation activities in association with banding or marking. Permitted bird

banders are required to submit their banding data to the BBL bird banding database and all recovered

bands should be reported to the USGS website (USGS website) for inclusion in the band encounter

database.

5c.2 Scientific collecting permits

A scientific collecting permit is required to take, transport, or possess migratory birds for scientific

research purposes (50 CFR 21.73). Permits are issued by the USFWS. Depredation permittees may

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

apply for scientific collecting permits to conduct research relating to depredation activities, such as

researching the effectiveness of methods. Researchers apply for scientific collection permits through

their respective regional USFWS offices. State and tribal scientific collection permits might be required

as well.

6. TRAINING

Interagency training may be developed by staff and subject matter experts from the USFWS MBP,

USGS BBL, and USDA APHIS WS to support the “Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of

Migratory Birds” guidelines.

Natural resources are held in the public trust and professional management of these resources is central

to the wildlife profession. Agency personnel and other wildlife professionals that handle wildlife

require a thorough understanding of available techniques, are expected to employ the correct methods,

and be proficient in their use. Knowledge and skills training may be developed and offered in a variety

of formats to ensure programs are established appropriately and successfully endure.

7. REFERENCES

Arent, L. R. 2007. Raptors in captivity: guidelines for care and management. Hancock House

Publishers, Blaine, Washington, USA.

Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies. 2006. Best Management Practices for Trapping in the United

States. AFWA 2006. https://www.wildlife.state.nh.us/hunting/documents/trapping-bmps-

intro.pdf

Berger, D. D., and F. Hamerstrom. 1962. Protecting a trapping station from raptor predation. Journal of

Wildlife Management 26:203–206.

Billerman, S.M., B. K. Keeney, P. G. Rodewald, and T. S. Schulenberg (Editors). 2022. Birds of the

World. Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA.

https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/home

Biteman, D. S., D. T. Collins, and B. E. Washburn. 2018. Sunshine, beaches, and birds: Managing

raptor-aircraft collisions at airports in southern California. Proceedings of Vertebrate Pest

Conference 28:159−163.

Bloom, P. H., W. S. Clark, and J. W. Kidd. 2007. Capture techniques. Pages 221–236 in Bird, D. M.,

and K. L. Bildstein, editors. Raptor research and management techniques. Hancock House

Publishers, Blaine, Washington, USA.

Bowden, A., Hromack, R.J., Loftis, C.H., Spencer, A.D. and B.E. Washburn. 2017. Management of

Wintering Short-eared Owls at Airports in the Lower Great Lakes Region.

Bub, H. 1991. (Translated by F. Hamerstrom and K. Wuertz-Schaefer). Bird trapping and Bird

Banding; A handbook for trapping methods all over the world. Cornell University Press, Ithaca,

New York, USA.

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

Caudill, D., G. Caudill, K. D. Meyer, G. M. Kent, J. Tarwater and E. Butler. A Pneumatic Net Gun

Method for Capture of Great Egrets (Ardea alba), Waterbirds, 37(4), 457-461, (1 December

2014).

Clark, W. 1992. On the etymology of the name Bal-Chatri. Journal of Raptor Research 26:196.

Dunk, J. R. 1991. A selective pole trap for raptors. Wildlife Society Bulletin 19:208–210.

Jackman, R. E., W. G. Hunt, D. E. Driscoll, and F. J. Lapsansky. 1994. Refinements to selective

trapping techniques: a radio-controlled bow net and power snare for bald and golden eagles.

Journal of Raptor Research 28:268–273.

Johnson, R. J. and J. F. Glahn, European Starlings. 1994. The Handbook: Prevention and Control of

Wildlife Damage. 72. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/72

Kenward, R. E., M. Karlbom, and V. Marcström. 1983. The price of success in goshawk trapping.

Journal of Raptor Research 17:84–91.

King, D. T., J.D. Paulson, D.J. LeBlanc and K. Bruce. 1998. Two capture techniques for American

white pelicans and great blue herons. Colonial Waterbirds 21(2): 258-260.

Meng, H. 1971. The Swedish goshawk trap. Journal of Wildlife Management 35:832–835.

Meredith, R. L. 1943. Methods, ancient, medieval, and modern for the capture of falcons and other

birds of prey. Pages 433–499 in Wood, C. A. and F. M. Fyfe, editors. The art of falconry.

Stanford University Press, Stanford, California, USA.

Meredith, R. L. 1953. Trapping goshawks. Journal of the Falconry Club of America 1:12–14.

Miller, E. A., and J. Schlieps, editors. 2021. Standards for Wildlife Rehabilitation.

National Wildlife Rehabilitators Association: Bloomington, MN. 419 pages.

North, N. R. and R. J. Hicks. 2017. North American Bander’s Manual for Waterfowl (Family –

Anatidea).

North American Banding Council. 41 Pages.

Prévost, Y. A., and J. M. Baker. 1984. A perch snare for catching ospreys. Journal of Wildlife

Management 48:991–993.

Pitlik, T. J., and B. E. Washburn. 2016. Non-lethal management of American kestrels: A case study at

the Los Angeles International Airport. Proceedings of Vertebrate Pest Conference 27:244−247.

Pullins, C. K., T. L. Guerrant, S. C. Beckerman, and B. E. Washburn. 2018. Mitigation translocation of

red-tailed hawks to reduce raptor-aircraft collisions. Journal of Wildlife Management 82:123–

129.

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Schafer, L. M., and B. E. Washburn. 2016. Managing raptor-aircraft collisions on a grand scale:

Summary of a Wildlife Services raptor relocation program. Proceedings of Vertebrate Pest

Conference 27:248−252.

Stewart, R. E., J. B. Cope, and C. S. Robbins. 1945. Live trapping of hawks and owls. Journal of

Wildlife Management 9:99–104.

Tordoff, H. B. 1954. An automatic live-trap for raptorial birds. Journal of Wildlife Management

18:281–284.

Washburn, B. E., C. K. Pullins, T. L. Guerrant, G. J. Martinelli, and S. F. Beckerman. 2021. Comparing

management programs to reduce red-tailed hawk collisions with aircraft. Wildlife Society Bulletin

45:237–243.

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

Appendix 1: Definitions

AWA: Animal Welfare Act. Federal law that regulates the treatment of certain animal species used in

research, education, and exhibition.

CFR: Code of Federal Regulations. The rules and regulations published in the Federal Register by the

executive departments and agencies of the federal government of the United States; once published they

become a permanent part of the federal regulations.

Depredation: An act causing damage or destruction on a specific species of wildlife or property

(including livestock). For this policy, “depredation” or “depredating bird” will indicate a bird causing

damage or destruction to property, preying upon special-status species.

IACUC: Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (often required by AWA). IACUC governs the

care and use of animals in research and education, and the roles and responsibilities of individuals in

institutional animal care and use programs. IACUC is required to be established at all academic

institutions that use animals for federally funded research, including but not limited to universities and

laboratories (Animal Welfare Act, 7 U.S.C. § 2143; U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2013; 9 CFR 2.31).

Institutions must have applicable IACUC coverage, when conducting training with live birds or

research.

Inclement weather: Severe or harsh weather conditions relative to the local climate. Examples include

periods of extreme temperatures (less than 32°F or more than 90°F) or during heavy precipitation events

(i.e., rain, snow).

Lure animal: Any live animal that is used in a humane manner to attract and capture avian predators.

MBTA: Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 codified at 16 U.S.C. §§ 703 – 712.

Relocation: The intentional movement of an animal to another part of its home range. For example,

catching a Cooper’s hawk within a building and releasing it outside.

Take (MBTA): To pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, trap, capture, or collect, or attempt to pursue, hunt,

shoot, wound, kill, trap, capture, or collect.

Translocation: The intentional movement of an animal a considerable distance outside of its home

range, either to establish a new population or to resolve a conflict.

U.S.C.: United States Code. A consolidation and codification of the general and permanent laws of the

United States.

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

Appendix 2: Web Links and Addresses (in order of appearance)

General Permit Information | U.S. Geological Survey (usgs.gov) : https://www.usgs.gov/labs/bird-

banding-laboratory/science/general-permit-information

BBL Bander Portal : https://www.usgs.gov/labs/bird-banding-laboratory/science/bander-portal

USGS Bird Banding Laboratory (www.reportband.gov) : http://www.reportband.gov/

NWRA Find A Rehabilitator Link : https://www.nwrawildlife.org/page/Found_Injured_Wildlife

Birds of the World : https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/home

10.13 list : https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-50/chapter-I/subchapter-B/part-10/subpart-B/section-10.13

Link to State Wildlife Offices : https://www.fws.gov/offices/statelinks.html

Depredation Permit FAQ : https://www.fws.gov/migratorybirds/pdf/policies-and-regulations/3-200-

13FAQ.pdf

Depredation ePermits Forms :

https://fwsepermits.servicenowservices.com/fws/?id=fws_kb_view&sys_id=04ca59181bff14104fa520ea

e54bcb47

USDA APHIS | Step-by-Step Guide to a Migratory Bird Depredation Permit :

https://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/ourfocus/wildlifedamage/operational-activities/Guide-to-Migratory-

Bird-Depredation-Permit

USDA APHIS | Contact Wildlife Services :

https://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/ourfocus/wildlifedamage/contact-ws

3-200-13 - Migratory Bird – Depredation (servicenowservices.com) :

https://fwsepermits.servicenowservices.com/fws/?id=fws_kb_view&sys_id=04ca59181bff14104fa520ea

e54bcb47

Eagle Depredation Permit FAQ : https://www.fws.gov/migratorybirds/pdf/policies-and-regulations/3-

200-16FAQ.pdf

Eagle Depredation ePermits Forms :

https://fwsepermits.servicenowservices.com/fws/?id=fws_kb_view&sys_id=30dd95e11b9f10104fa520e

ae54bcb06

BBL website : https://www.usgs.gov/centers/eesc/science/bird-banding-laboratory?qt-

science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects

USGS website : https://www.pwrc.usgs.gov/BBL/bblretrv/

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

Appendix 3: Using the Raptor Trauma Triage Cards

The Raptor Trauma Triage Cards (RTTC) list the most common injuries or abnormalities noted in free-

ranging raptors; it is by no means an exhaustive list. The RTTC relies on your visual and physical

exams of the injured or abnormal raptor in order to determine which outcome is most appropriate.

Raptors should first be assessed visually from a distance, even if the bird is already physically contained.

It is important to do this before you manually restrain it for the physical exam, as once the bird is in-

hand, much of this visual information will be masked. Mentally run through the criteria on the Visual

Exam card: age, mentation, respirations, obvious trauma, and behavior. If you have any questions,

consult the written material on the flip side. Use this information to guide your physical exam.

Next, manually restrain the raptor and begin your physical exam. Again, run through the criteria on the

Physical Exam card: keel score, eyes, beak/oral cavity, feathers, wings/legs/body, and feet/talons. If you

have any questions, consult the didactic material on the flip side and the pictures.

While in the field, your exams will lead you to one of three options - Release back into the wild,

Transport to a veterinarian, wildlife rehabilitator, or other facility for further assessment or care, or

Euthanize. If you determine that the raptor should be euthanized, do so immediately; it is not necessary

to complete the remainder of the exam. A raptor should be released only if you have determined that

any injuries or abnormalities do not require euthanasia or transport for further evaluation. If you are in

doubt as to which option is best, please transport to a veterinarian, wildlife rehabilitator, or other facility

for further assessment.

The RTTC has been developed for use in research efforts and will continue to evolve as necessary. If

you have any questions, comments or concerns, please feel free to contact Dr. Brian Washburn of the

USDA APHIS WS National Wildlife Research Center ([email protected]).

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

Raptor Trauma Triage Card

Visual Exam

Criteria

Outcome

Age – based on plumage

Nestling - ‘blue’/cloudy eyes are normal in some species of young owls

Nestling/brancher - absent or muted fear response may be appropriate

Second year or older - increased hunting experience may mitigate handicap

Mentation

Alert/interested in surroundings

Depressed/lethargic

Poorly or non-responsive/exhibiting seizures

Respirations

Minimal respiratory movement (keel or ‘chest’)/no respiratory sounds

Open mouth breathing/increased effort or rate

Can hear bird breathing; can see keel/wings/tail moving while breathing

Obvious Trauma

Unable to stand/‘tuck’ wing(s)/hold head in proper position; or visible wounds/fractures

Blind in both eyes; globe deflated/misshapen/missing

Missing or requires amputation of wing at the elbow or above (humero-ulnar joint)

Missing or requires amputation of a foot or leg

Behavior

Typical species and age-specific behavior

Flight/fight/freeze

Abnormal behavior due to injury or disease

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

Key: * - influences final decision R – release T – transport E - euthanize in the field

Raptor Trauma Triage Card

Visual Exam

Visually scan the entire bird, ideally from a distance. Once the bird is restrained, its reactions and

behaviors will change. Your visual examination can help guide your physical examination.

Age: This is usually based on plumage. It is important to know if this is a first-year bird. Age plays a

role in triage such as determining appropriate behavior, what is considered a normal keel score, and the

amount of hunting experience the bird has. With some injuries, an older, experienced bird might be

rehabilitated and released, whereas a first-year bird might be euthanized. With a bird that is an

inexperienced hunter, the injury even when healed, may present too much of a handicap. (For help in

aging raptor species see - Pyle,P. Identification Guide to North American Birds, Part 1 (2001) and Part

11 (2008).

Mentation: Is the bird alert and interested in its surroundings and you? Or, is the bird depressed and

lethargic (transport) or non-responsive (euthanize)? Any bird that is exhibiting rhythmic movements of

its head or body, or seizures should also be euthanized.

Respiration: In general, you should not see obvious respiratory movements (keel or ‘chest’) nor hear a

bird breathing. Does the bird have open mouth breathing or increased movement of the keel, wings

and/or tail while breathing? Can you hear obvious wheezing or fluid sounds? These birds should be

transported. Note, some individuals will open their mouth and ‘stick out’ their tongue as a freeze or

threat response. Other species may ‘tail-pump’ for a variety of reasons. These behaviors are not related

to respiration.

Obvious trauma: Is the bird unable to stand (needs to be distinguished from a behavioral ‘freeze'),

unable to ‘tuck’ one or both wings, or unable to hold its head in a proper position? Is there evidence

of trauma such as injuries to the eyes, skin wounds or bone fractures? If confirmed on the physical

exam, these birds should be transported. However, USFWS guidelines require the euthanasia of any

bird that is completely blind, has sustained injuries that would require the amputation of a leg, a foot,

or a wing at the elbow or above (humero-ulnar joint). These birds should be euthanized in the field

instead of putting them through the pain and stress of transport. See Physical Exam for more detailed

information.

Unless the bird’s eye(s) is/are physically traumatized and abnormal in appearance, ‘blindness’ can be

difficult to determine in raptors due to their stoic nature. Note that some nestling owl species have

‘blue’ or cloudy corneas; this is physiologically normal.

Behavior: Is the bird exhibiting expected behavior for its age and species? For example, some nestlings

‘pancake’ or some branchers have a muted or absent response to a human presence. Or is it exhibiting

atypical behavior, possibly due to injury or potential disease? Again, these abnormalities can help

guide your physical exam.

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

Key: * - influences final decision R – release T – transport E - euthanize in the field

Physical

Exam

Criteria

Outcome

Keel score (1-5)

Score - 1: abnormal except in a pre-fledging or non-flighted bird

Score - 2-4

Score - 5: well-conditioned/ migratory

Keel wound noted

Eyes

Few pox lesions (~warts): providing they do not interfere with eye or eyelids

‘Almond’ eyes (dehydration): check keel score

Cloudy cornea/abnormally shaped pupil/cataract/blood in eye

Globe deflated/misshapen/missing

Beak/oral cavity

Few pox lesions (~warts): providing they do not interfere with opening/closing of the beak

Damaged or misaligned beak

Oral cavity - Pale/white or tacky (hydration)/blood/parasites/wounds/exudate

Oral cavity - Dark red/purple + tacky/extensive exudates/lesions

Feathers

A few feathers are tipped, frayed or broken

Moderate/severe feather damage or missing multiple flight feathers

Oiled/heavily soiled feathers

Maggots/moderate-heavy external parasites (flies, lice, mites)

Wings/legs/body

Partial or full thickness lacerations with deep tissue, tendon or bone exposure/open or closed

fractures

Extensive wound areas/fractures or luxations involving joints/dry or discolored tendons/bones

Missing/requires amputation of wing at the elbow or above or a foot or leg

A wound that penetrates the coelomic cavity (over the abdomen)

Feet/talons

Swelling, wounds or fractures of the toe, or missing toes or talons

Missing but healed digit/talon AND bird in good body condition

Mild to moderate ‘bumblefoot’

Severe ‘bumblefoot’/acute loss of hallux or 2

digit

3 Strike Rule

Multiple significant injuries/issues

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

Physical Exam

Manually restrain the bird, ensuring that keel movements are not restricted. Lightly cover the bird’s

head and minimize noise and other stimuli. Complete the exam as quickly as possible. If the bird is

severely compromised, consider immediate euthanasia.

Keel score: The keel score is a measure of the amount of pectoral muscle mass present and is a good

indication of the general health status. Determining a keel score requires both palpation and

visualization; scores range from 1 (thin) to 5 (heavy). Try blowing or moving the feathers off the keel.

In general, a healthy bird has a score of 3. A low score can be seen in starving birds (abnormal) or a

bird that has not yet fledged (normal); the keel feels very sharp. A higher score can be seen in an over-

conditioned (abnormal) or pre- migratory bird (normal); the keel bone is not easily discernible as it is

covered by muscles. Any keel wound or keel fracture requires further investigation and the bird should

be transported.

Eyes: The eyes and eyelids should appear symmetrical. If the eyeball sits recessed in the orbit, or the

eyelids are partially closed (‘almond eyes’), the bird may be dehydrated and/or starving (check the

keel); depending upon the remainder of the exam, consider transport. The cornea, the outer surface of

the eye, should be smooth, moist and clear. If some or all of the cornea is white or cloudy, if the black

pupil has an abnormal shape, if a glassy or white density is noted in the black pupil (cataract), or if the

chamber in front of the iris has blood or other material visible, the bird should be transported. If the eye

is perforated, the globe deflated, misshapen or missing, the bird should be euthanized. A bird with a

few pox lesions (look like warts, usually in juvenile birds) is releasable, providing the lesions do not

interfere with the eye or movement of the eyelids.

Beak/oral cavity: Look for any trauma or malalignment of the upper and lower beak. In general, birds

with damaged or misaligned beaks should be transported. A bird with a few pox lesions (look like

warts, usually in juvenile birds) is releasable, providing the lesions do not interfere with the

opening/closing of the beak.

Gently open the mouth, keeping a finger in the back soft commissure (corner). The oral cavity should be

moist and pink; some species, such as accipiters and merlins, normally have dark pigmented mucous

membranes.

Pale coloration indicates anemia; a tacky or stringy appearance indicates dehydration. If there is any

significant amount of blood, parasites, wounds, or exudates (often ‘cheesy’) visible in the oral cavity,

the bird should be transported. If the oral cavity is dark red or purple, this could indicate shock. This

would likely be accompanied by other clinical signs such as depression and lethargy and field

euthanasia should be considered.

Feathers: Feathers serve multiple functions including flight, temperature regulation and protection. A

few tipped, frayed, or missing feathers are acceptable, but individuals with significant feather loss or

large gaps in wing/tail feather coverage should be transported. Oily or heavily soiled feathers will

impact waterproofing and temperature regulation; these individuals should be transported. If maggots

are seen, look for wounds; these birds will likely need to be transported. Small maggots are often seen

in the ears of nestling birds; generally these birds can be released. Moderate to heavy infestations with

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

external parasites, including lice, mites, or flat flies can indicate a poor state of health; these birds

should be transported depending on the remainder of the exam.

Wings/legs/body: While gently holding either the upper wing (humerus) or upper leg (femur) with your

dominant hand, use your non-dominant hand to slowly pull/stretch/extend the wing (from carpus or

wrist) or leg (from foot - be aware of digits/talons). You should be able to fully extend the wing or leg.

Look/feel for any wounds, bone fractures, or joint dislocations. Be sure to check the patagium, the skin

between the top of the shoulder and the top of the carpus (wrist), for any signs of trauma. If you cannot

fully extend a wing or a leg, the bird should be transported. Any bird with a wound that exposes

underlying tendons or bones should be transported. Any bird with evidence of fence/wire entanglement,

electric shock or frostbite should be transported due to secondary injuries. In these instances the

extremity may be cold to the touch, the skin discolored (salmon to black), and/or have evidence of a

burn.

If a bird is missing, or will require an amputation of, a wing at the elbow or above (humero-ulnar joint),

or a foot or a leg, it should be euthanized per USFWS policy. A bird should be euthanized if: it has

extensive wounds; a fracture or luxation near a joint; and/or, has an open fracture and the exposed

tendons and/or bones are dry or no longer white in color. If a bird has a wound that penetrates the

coelomic cavity (over the abdomen), the bird should be euthanized.

Feet/talons: Carefully examine the digits and talons. You may be able to open/extend each of the toes;

the ‘ratchet’ sound is normal. Look for any swelling, wounds or fractures of the toes, or missing toes

or talons. Also look at the pads at the bottom of the foot and digits for any redness, wounds or trauma

(‘bumblefoot’). ‘Bumblefoot’ is rare in free-ranging birds except for prey bites, traps, etc. Given the

vital necessity of a functional foot for hunting, birds with foot or talon issues should be transported. If

a bird has severe ‘bumblefoot’ of one or both feet or has recently lost the hallux (back toe) and/or

second digits of one or both feet, it should be euthanized. If an adult bird is missing a digit, the site is

well-healed, the remainder of the digits and talons on both feet are normal, and the keel score is good,

release could be considered depending on the remainder of the exam.

3 Strike Rule: Injured raptors often have concurrent issues, such as a traumatic injury, starvation and an

infection. Individually each of these injuries may be treatable, but cumulatively may be

unsurmountable. The impact of these abnormalities are not cumulative, they are exponential. The odds

of a bird with multiple pathologies being rehabilitated and released are significantly decreased.

Consider field euthanasia for these individuals.

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

Raptor Trauma Triage Card

Keel Score

Hatchling/Brancher (normal)

Keel Score = 1

Keel Score = 3

Keel Score = 5

Eyes

‘Almond’ eyes (dehydration)

Significant globe injury/

deflated

Cloudy/damaged cornea/

Abnormal chamber

Avian pox lesions

Beak/oral cavity

Blood in choanae/

roof of mouth

Oral lesions/plagues

Pale mucous membranes

Stringy saliva; shock mucous

membranes

Feathers

Lice infestation

Missing

flight/tail feathers

Oiled/tar

Tattered feathers/

missing wing tip

The Humane Capture, Handling, and Disposition of Migratory Birds

Wings/legs/body

Hole in patagium

Open wing fracture

Leg wounds

Severely

abnormal posture

Feet/talons

Avian pox lesions

Missing talon sheath

Minor trap wound

Grade 3 ‘bumblefoot’

3 Strikes (examples)

Starvation

Injured wing

Patagial Wound

Abnormal pupil

Behavior

‘Pancake’ behavior

‘Flight/Fight’ behavior

Depression/Lethargy