STUDENT EXPERIENCES OF FIRST-YEAR
UNIVERSITY: AN AUSTRALIAN CASE STUDY
Kathleen Mary Francis O’Brien
Dip Ed (EC), B Ed St, M Ed (ECE), Grad Cert (HE)
Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
Faculty of Education and Arts
Australian Catholic University
2020
Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study i
Statement of Authorship and Sources
This thesis contains no material that has been extracted in whole or in part from a thesis
that I have submitted towards the award of any other degree or diploma in any other tertiary
institution.
No other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgement in the main text of
the thesis.
All research procedures reported in the thesis received the approval of the University
Ethics Committee.
Charlotte Cottier (Accredited Editor with the Institute of Professional Editors) provided
copyediting and proofreading services, according to the guidelines laid out in the university-
endorsed national Guidelines for editing research theses.
Signed:
Date:
25th February, 2020
ii Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
Statement of Appreciation
I would like to thank all the people who have guided and supported me through to the
completion of my thesis. Associate Professor Denis McLaughlin and Associate Professor Theda
Thomas, thank you for your contribution. Associate Professor Janeen Lamb, without you, I
don’t believe I could have achieved my doctorate. You joined the team with gusto and provided
all the professional and collegial advice I needed. You taught me things that I never thought
possible. You encouraged me with positive affirmations, and we laughed a lot, something I
didn’t associate with writing a thesis. You showed interest in my work and you were committed
from the minute you began working with me. Your expertise, time, feedback, and energy are
things I will never forget. Thank you for supporting and encouraging me. It has been a privilege
to have you as my principal supervisor, mentor, colleague, and friend. I’m glad there were times
when we could stop to smell the roses.
A constant through the experience in the last few years has been Associate Professor
William Sultmann, AM. Bill, you are a true gentleman who always believed in the quality of
my work and assisted me with the expression that I needed. Your attention to detail and keen
eye guided and supported the writing I was hoping to achieve. Let’s hope one day you will have
that boat we always talk about. Your kind, gentle nature and good humour strengthened the
team. In saying that, the three of us made a great team.
I would also like to thank all my colleagues and friends, past and present, at the Australian
Catholic University who have supported me the whole way. Just a positive, “how’s the writing
going” and genuine interest in my progress, to a “don’t quit” poem pinned to my office wall
alongside the “Owl of great glory” watching over me. You all listened when I needed to talk. I
appreciate that. I also thank the students who made the research happen and volunteered their
invaluable time.
Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study iii
To my family, who have watched my thesis unfold for a few years now, sometimes in
complete oblivion to “Oh mum has disappeared again”. You all understood the difficulty of the
task I was undertaking and stepped up in support of me through just the simple things of the
day-to-day running of a home and the occasional word I was trying to find to complete a
sentence. To my husband, Laurie, thank you for your love and support. You have guided me
through the tough times, listened and been a “shoulder to cry on” when I was in need. You have
counselled me during times of frustration and on numerous occasions when I had writers’ block,
as I simply could not move forward. You helped me with that process. To my children, Liam,
Sean, Meg, and Abby, I am grateful for your love and support as well. The appreciation of a
meal being cooked and letting me work so I could “just get it finished, Mum”. I look forward
to spending more time with you all and enjoying the simple things in life, and we can now have
that white Christmas we’ve been talking about.
To my mum and dad, Annette and Bill Hallett, our conversations surrounding my topic
were always amusing, but in the end, we got there. I know this has taken a few more years to
complete than expected, but I thank my lucky stars that you are both here to see this finally
come to fruition. To my brother and sisters, for always asking about my progress and your
complete support in the whole process. I know you are all proud of me and I thank you for your
love and support and believing in me.
To all my friends and the “loveys”, we can now take that trip to New York, drink more
bubbles and celebrate. To my friend, Doctor Anne Purcell, our teaching paths crossed many
years ago, and we have remained friends ever since. In the early days and on many occasions,
we chatted about my thesis and you were only ever a phone call away to assist with guidance.
Thank you for your support.
Lastly, to the counsellor at a local Brisbane girls’ high school who told me I couldn’t
write, and that I wouldn’t amount to much, and that I wouldn’t succeed at university. Even
though I feel I have achieved every goal I set for myself, I can see clearly now that our advice
iv Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
to students is critical and that we must support our students and their dreams. Always, always
strive to achieve by doing your best. Believe in yourself and follow your dreams! Pass this
message on to all the children you teach in the future. Simple really!
Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study v
Table of Contents
Statement of Authorship and Sources ....................................................................................................... i
Statement of Appreciation ....................................................................................................................... ii
Table of Contents ..................................................................................................................................... v
List of Figures ......................................................................................................................................... ix
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................................ x
Keywords ................................................................................................................................................ xi
List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................. xii
Abstract ................................................................................................................................................ xiii
CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW OF STUDY .............................................................................. 1
1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Significance of the Research .......................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Thesis Structure ............................................................................................................................. 4
1.3.1 Chapter 2: Identifying the research problem ....................................................................... 4
1.3.2 Chapter 3: Literature review ................................................................................................ 5
1.3.3 Chapter 4: Methodology ...................................................................................................... 6
1.3.4 Chapter 5: Findings ............................................................................................................. 6
1.3.5 Chapter 6: Discussion of findings and conclusion ............................................................... 6
CHAPTER 2: IDENTIFYING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM ......................................... 9
2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 9
2.2 International Context ..................................................................................................................... 9
2.2.1 An increase in tertiary education enrolments across OECD countries .............................. 10
2.2.2 Comparisons of some OECD countries ............................................................................. 15
2.3 Australian Higher Education ........................................................................................................ 17
2.3.1 Overview of Australian higher education .......................................................................... 17
2.3.2 Initial Teacher Education ................................................................................................... 24
2.3.3 Students with low admission scores .................................................................................. 28
2.4 ACU Context ............................................................................................................................... 30
2.4.1 Faculty of Education and Arts ........................................................................................... 32
2.4.2 School of Education ........................................................................................................... 33
2.5 Researcher’s Experience .............................................................................................................. 35
2.6 The Research Problem, Purpose and Question for the Study ...................................................... 36
2.6.1 The research problem ........................................................................................................ 36
2.6.2 The research purpose ......................................................................................................... 37
CHAPTER 3: LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................ 39
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 39
3.2 FYE Transition............................................................................................................................. 40
3.3 What Students Bring to University .............................................................................................. 46
3.3.1 First-year student characteristics ....................................................................................... 47
3.3.2 Student engagement in higher education ........................................................................... 51
vi Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
3.4 University Provisions for FYE Students ..................................................................................... 57
3.4.1 Orientation programs ........................................................................................................ 57
3.4.2 Ongoing supports the university provides throughout a student’s first year ..................... 61
Mentoring programs ........................................................................................................................ 62
Academic support services .............................................................................................................. 65
Assessment and feedback ................................................................................................................ 66
3.4.3 ITE exists within the context of the broader university .................................................... 69
Culture of university ....................................................................................................................... 69
Blended and online learning ............................................................................................................ 71
Surface, Deep, and Achieving approaches to learning .................................................................... 73
3.5 Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 76
CHAPTER 4: DESIGN OF THE RESEARCH .................................................................. 79
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 79
4.2 Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................................... 80
4.2.1 Epistemology: Constructionism ........................................................................................ 80
4.2.2 Research paradigm: Interpretivism ................................................................................... 82
4.2.3 Theoretical perspective: Symbolic interactionism ............................................................ 83
4.2.4 Research methodology: Case study .................................................................................. 86
4.3 Method ........................................................................................................................................ 88
4.3.1 Research participants ........................................................................................................ 88
4.3.2 Data collection strategies .................................................................................................. 90
SPQ ................................................................................................................................................. 90
Semi-structured in-depth focus group interviews ............................................................................ 92
Semi-structured in-depth individual interviews .............................................................................. 94
4.4 Data Analysis and Interpretation ................................................................................................. 96
4.4.1 Quantitative data analysis and interpretation .................................................................... 97
4.4.2 Qualitative data analysis and interpretation .................................................................... 100
4.5 Verification ............................................................................................................................... 104
4.5.1 Credibility ....................................................................................................................... 104
4.5.2 Confirmability ................................................................................................................. 104
4.5.3 Dependability .................................................................................................................. 105
4.5.4 Transferability ................................................................................................................. 105
4.6 Ethical Issues ............................................................................................................................. 106
4.7 Limitations and Delimitations ................................................................................................... 108
4.8 Summary ................................................................................................................................... 109
CHAPTER 5: PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS ............................................................ 110
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 110
5.2 Exploration Phase: SPQ ............................................................................................................ 111
5.2.1 Analysis of individual items on the SPQ: Surface approaches ....................................... 112
5.2.2 Analysis of individual items on the SPQ: Deep approaches ........................................... 116
5.2.3 Analysis of individual items on the SPQ: Achieving approaches ................................... 119
5.3 Comparisons of SPQ Scores According to Student Characteristics .......................................... 122
5.3.1 SPQ scores according to the time the SPQ was administered ........................................ 123
5.3.2 SPQ scores according to gender ...................................................................................... 124
5.3.3 SPQ scores according to recent school leavers and non-recent school leavers .............. 125
5.3.4 Findings following SPQ analyses ................................................................................... 126
Surface approaches ........................................................................................................................ 126
Deep approaches ........................................................................................................................... 126
Achieving approaches ................................................................................................................... 127
Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study vii
5.4 Inspection Phase: Semi-Structured In-Depth Focus Group Interviews and Semi-Structured In-
Depth Individual Interviews ...................................................................................................... 127
5.5 Transition Supports on Campus ................................................................................................. 128
5.5.1 Orientation Day as a support ........................................................................................... 128
5.5.2 Mentoring Program as a support ...................................................................................... 131
5.5.3 OSS and Academic Skills Unit as supports ..................................................................... 132
5.5.4 Findings from the theme Transition supports on campus ............................................... 135
5.6 Student Learning Experiences ................................................................................................... 136
5.6.1 Freedom while studying .................................................................................................. 136
5.6.2 Peer networking and diverse social groups...................................................................... 138
5.6.3 Student study habits and strategies .................................................................................. 140
5.6.4 Online learning ................................................................................................................ 143
5.6.5 Findings from the theme Student learning experiences ................................................... 144
5.7 Student Identity .......................................................................................................................... 144
5.7.1 Student expectations of first year .................................................................................... 145
5.7.2 Sense of belonging ........................................................................................................... 148
5.7.3 University is a full-time job ............................................................................................. 150
5.7.4 Voice of the non-recent school leaver ............................................................................. 151
5.7.5 Time management ........................................................................................................... 153
5.7.6 Findings from the theme Student identity ........................................................................ 154
5.8 Engagement Factors at University ............................................................................................. 155
5.8.1 Engagement in and outside of class ................................................................................. 155
5.8.2 Student perspectives of assessment in units .................................................................... 158
5.8.3 Lecturers’ feedback and support ...................................................................................... 161
5.8.4 Findings from the theme Engagement factors at university ............................................ 163
5.9 Semi-Structured In-Depth Individual Interviews: Participant Case Studies .............................. 163
5.9.1 Participant Bridget CC – Case Study 1: Sense of belonging ........................................... 164
5.9.2 Participant Sue CC – Case Study 2: Peer networking and diverse social groups ............ 168
5.9.3 Participant Conor CC – Case Study 3: Engagement in and outside of class ................... 171
5.9.4 Findings from the three case studies ................................................................................ 174
5.10 Findings from Study .................................................................................................................. 175
CHAPTER 6: DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS AND STUDY CONCLUSIONS ............ 177
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 177
6.2 Personal Transition to University .............................................................................................. 181
6.2.1 Engaged students value Orientation Day, but many find it overwhelming ..................... 181
6.2.2 Engaged students value the Mentoring Program ............................................................. 183
6.2.3 Engaged students develop a sense of student identity and are motivated to succeed ...... 183
6.2.4 Engaged students value validation from staff and peers .................................................. 184
6.2.5 Engaged students take responsibility for their engagement ............................................. 185
6.3 Social Experiences at University ............................................................................................... 185
6.3.1 Engaged students benefit from social interaction through study and friendship
groups .............................................................................................................................. 185
6.4 Academic Experiences at University ......................................................................................... 187
6.4.1 Engaged students develop positive study habits and strategies to promote time
management skills ........................................................................................................... 187
6.4.2 Engaged students create partnerships with their teachers to improve their
engagement in and outside of class ................................................................................. 189
6.5 Addressing the Research Question ............................................................................................ 190
6.6 Application of Theory: Spectrum of Engagement Framework .................................................. 191
6.7 Contribution to the Field ............................................................................................................ 201
viii Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
6.7.1 Contribution to new knowledge ...................................................................................... 201
6.7.2 Contribution to practice .................................................................................................. 202
Identification of engagement dimensions ...................................................................................... 202
Engagement strategies that maximise engagement ....................................................................... 202
Classification of student engagement as a mechanism for monitoring and support ...................... 203
Monitoring student engagement .................................................................................................... 203
6.8 Recommendations ..................................................................................................................... 203
6.8.1 Further research .............................................................................................................. 204
6.8.2 Policy change .................................................................................................................. 204
6.9 Limitations of the Study ............................................................................................................ 205
6.10 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 206
REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 209
APPENDICES ……………………………………………………………………………...229
Appendix A Email to Students and Staff .................................................................................. 231
Appendix B Study Process Questionnaire, Consent Process and SPQ Qualtrics Consent ........ 232
Appendix C Study Process Questionnaire Participant Information Letter ................................ 235
Appendix D Semi-Structured In-Depth Focus Group Interview Protocol ................................ 237
Appendix E Consent Form (Student) ........................................................................................ 241
Appendix F Semi-Structured In-Depth Individual Interview Protocol (Students) .................... 242
Appendix G Semi-Structured In-Depth Individual Interview Protocol—Case Studies ............ 245
Appendix H Semi-Structured In-Depth Individual Interview Protocol (Non-Academic
Staff Member from Office of Student Success) .............................................................. 247
Appendix I Semi-Structured In-Depth Individual Interview Protocol (Non-Academic
Staff Members from Orientation Committee) ................................................................. 249
Appendix J Human Research Ethics Committee Approval Letter and Original Email ............ 251
Appendix K Information Letter to Students .............................................................................. 253
Appendix L Information Letter to Staff .................................................................................... 255
Appendix M Consent Form (Staff) ........................................................................................... 257
Appendix N Spectrum of Engagement Self-Assessment Tool (SOESAT) ............................... 258
Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study ix
List of Figures
Figure 2.1. Percentage of tertiary-educated 25- to 34-year-olds, selected countries, 2008–2018. ........ 11
Figure 2.2. Share of population who hold a bachelor level degree or above in Australia from
2012 to 2018. .......................................................................................................................................... 12
Figure 2.3. Percentage of 25- to 34-year-olds who have a bachelor’s degree or higher in
Australia up to and including 2016. ....................................................................................................... 21
Figure 5.1. Mean scores for SPQ scales according to time (n = 93). ................................................... 123
Figure 5.2. Mean scores for SPQ scales according to gender (females n = 60; males n = 26). ........... 124
Figure 5.3. Mean scores for SPQ scales according to recent school leavers (n = 50) and non-
recent school leavers (n = 36). ............................................................................................................. 126
Figure 6.1. Spectrum of Engagement Framework (SOEF) criteria sheet. ........................................... 193
Figure 6.2. Model representing high level of engagement for personal, social, and academic
dimensions. ........................................................................................................................................... 194
Figure 6.3. Model representing low level of engagement for personal, social and academic
dimensions. ........................................................................................................................................... 196
Figure 6.4. Spectrum of Engagement Framework (SOEF). ................................................................. 198
Figure 6.5. Personal dimensions of engagement reflection. ................................................................ 200
Figure 6.6. Summary of self-assessment levels of engagement. ......................................................... 201
x Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
List of Tables
Table 3.1 Four Generations of FYE Support ........................................................................................ 41
Table 4.1 Theoretical Framework Used in This Study .......................................................................... 88
Table 4.2 Participant Groups and Interview Strategies ........................................................................ 89
Table 4.3 Overview of Data Collection Process ................................................................................... 96
Table 4.4 Statistical Properties of the SPQ (n = 93) ............................................................................. 98
Table 4.5 Examples of Transcripts, Codes and Themes ...................................................................... 103
Table 4.6 Data Collection Strategies and Ethical Considerations ...................................................... 108
Table 5.1 Surface Approaches Response Percentages ........................................................................ 114
Table 5.2 Deep Approaches Response Percentages ............................................................................ 118
Table 5.3 Achieving Approaches Response Percentages .................................................................... 120
Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study xi
Keywords
engagement, first-year experience, higher education, identity, sense of belonging, transition,
spectrum of engagement
xii Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
List of Abbreviations
ABS Australian Bureau of Statistics
ACDE Australian Council of Deans of Education
ACER Australian Council for Educational Research
ACU Australian Catholic University
AITSL Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership
ATAR Australian Tertiary Admission Rank
AUSSE Australasian Survey of Student Engagement
DET Department of Education and Training
DESE Department of Education, Skills and Employment
FYE First-year experience
HECS Higher Education Contribution Scheme
ITE Initial teacher education
LANTITE Literacy and Numeracy Test for Initial Teacher Education Students
LEO Learning environment online
McASA McAuley Student Association
NSSE National Survey of Student Engagement
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
OP Overall Position
OSS Office of Student Success
PISA Programme for International Student Assessment
QTAC Queensland Tertiary Admissions Centre
SES Socioeconomic status
SPQ Study Process Questionnaire
SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
SOEF Spectrum of Engagement Framework
SOESAT Spectrum of Engagement Self-Assessment Tool
TEMAG Teacher Education Ministerial Advisory Group
VET Vocational education and training
Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study xiii
Abstract
The impetus for this study was a concern for first-year Bachelor of Education (Primary)
students, and whether students experienced or engaged with the university support services
offered by the university. My interest also grew from my experiences of teaching first-year
Bachelor of Education (Primary) students. Within this context there developed a passion to
understand and optimise learning experiences for all students, particularly those who had gained
entry to the degree with low scores or through alternative pathway entry.
Entry for students with low entry scores can be traced to the Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development (OECD) goals of increasing the percentage of each member
country’s population with a university degree. Australia, like all OECD countries, has
implemented plans to increase university student numbers, and this can be seen in the large
increase in the student population at Australian Catholic University. Even though universities
offer many and varied support services, this study seeks to establish if the services provided are
used by students and supportive of student needs, in accord with better understanding and
enhancing student engagement. With this context in mind, the research question for this study
was: How do first-year Bachelor of Education (Primary) students at Australian Catholic
University (ACU) on the Brisbane campus engage with supports and experience university life,
and can a tool be developed to assess engagement that will benefit the wider higher education
community?
The research explored this question by drawing on the perspectives of 93 first-year
Bachelor of Education (Primary) students and three non-academic staff at Australian Catholic
University on the Brisbane campus, Banyo. This was achieved by adopting an interpretivist
study that used symbolic interactionism with two phases of data collection and analysis:
Exploration and Inspection. The Exploration Phase was quantitative using the Study Process
Questionnaire (SPQ; Biggs, 1987), while the Inspection Phase used a qualitative approach with
xiv Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
semi-structured in-depth focus group interviews and semi-structured in-depth individual
interviews. Quantitative analysis confirmed Biggs’s (1987) earlier work that there were three
main factors influencing student approaches to learning: Surface approaches, Deep
approaches, and Achieving approaches. The qualitative analysis indicated that there were three
main factors influencing student engagement: Personal transition to university, Social
experiences at university, and Academic experiences at university. These findings led to the
advancement of three theoretical propositions and the development of the Spectrum of
Engagement Framework (SOEF) and the Spectrum of Engagement Self-Assessment Tool
(SOESAT), with both representing new contributions to the field and with both having important
implications for first-year student engagement.
Chapter 1: Overview of Study 1
Chapter 1: Overview of Study
1.1 INTRODUCTION
My professional training included completion of a Diploma of Education (Early Childhood)
in 1990 and a Bachelor of Educational Studies in 1992. My subsequent career in early childhood
and primary settings was in Brisbane and entailed engagements with private educational
providers, Education Queensland and Brisbane Catholic Education. I completed a Master of
Education (Early Childhood) in 1999 and not long after began working in the higher education
sector for various organisations, such as Queensland University of Technology and Shafston
Institute, where my roles included teaching, research, and supervising practicum students.
Early career appointments led to my employment at Australian Catholic University
(ACU) in 2008, on the Banyo campus in Brisbane. Since that time, I have continued to work in
the School of Education within the Faculty of Education and Arts, teaching undergraduate
students in the Bachelor of Education (Primary) and Bachelor of Education (Early Childhood
and Primary) degrees. I lecture predominantly in Education Psychology, which is a compulsory
first-year unit for pre-service teachers, and I also lecture in various other units across both
degrees. I am the Lecturer in Charge and Tutor for each of the units I teach.
Since joining ACU I have become very interested in first-year student experiences as I
believe that early positive experiences at university can enhance student success. My interest
has developed such that I have been the Faculty’s unofficial First-Year Experience Coordinator
as well as the Mentoring Program Coordinator. In addition to these roles, I have served on the
Orientation and Open Day Committees for over 10 years. These roles focus on providing a
positive entry and transition into university for first-year students.
It was due to my interest in the ongoing success of my first-year students that I decided
to explore ACU first-year Bachelor of Education (Primary) students’ experiences on the Banyo
2 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
campus, Brisbane. Due to my piqued interest, I began to notice many students were struggling
with general literacy skills, such as reflective writing and interpretation of readings. It also
became evident to me that some of my students were entering university with very low entry
scores as revealed in their Overall Position (OP)
1
or Australian Tertiary Admission Rank
(ATAR
2
; this is discussed further in Section 2.3.2). In addition, anecdotal evidence from
students and staff, including Academic Skills services, indicated that few students sought extra
assistance as they did not know how to obtain the help they needed. In light of this, I began to
investigate support services provided by the university in an effort to direct students to seek out
the support they needed to improve and succeed.
My interest in this field of study has continued with this thesis and the results of my
doctoral studies. The research question that has guided my study is:
How do first-year Bachelor of Education (Primary) students at Australian Catholic
University (ACU) on the Brisbane campus engage with supports and experience university
life, and can a tool be developed to assess engagement that will benefit the wider higher
education community?
1.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH
Australian universities have seen an increase in student enrolments in recent years, where
students with low university entry scores in the form of OPs and ATARs (Baik, Naylor, Arkoudis,
& Dabrowski, 2019), students from low socioeconomic status (SES) backgrounds, and
Indigenous students make up the majority of this increase. Notwithstanding, Australian
1
An OP is a student’s position in a Queensland statewide rank order based on their overall achievement in their
subjects. OP1 is the highest score and OP25 the lowest score (Queensland Curriculum and Assessment
Authority, 2020).
2
An ATAR is a rank that provides a measure of student overall academic achievement in the Certificate of
Education. An ATAR is ranked between 0.00 and 99.95 with increments of 0.05 (Queensland Curriculum and
Assessment Authority, 2020).
Chapter 1: Overview of Study 3
universities provide support programs for all students but in particular those students who have
not met the usual entry requirements.
In an effort to understand this change in policy for university entry by Australian
universities, I undertook a review of Australian Government documents such as the Bradley
Review (Bradley, Noonan, Nugent, & Scales, 2008). Within these documents are constant
references to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) goals for
all OECD member countries to increase the percentage of their populations of 24- to 34-year-
olds with a degree. Consistent with this OECD goal, the Bradley Review (2008) recommended
an increase in Australian student enrolments such that by 2025 Australia would have 40% of
the population of 24- to 35-year-olds with a degree. To achieve this, entry of students from a
diverse range of backgrounds across the Australian landscape has been recommended and is
now being advanced.
It seems that many OECD countries are indeed in a similar position to Australia, with
each trying to reach their allocated goal. With the changes in government policies and many
students given the opportunity to enter universities come important consequences that cannot
be minimised or overlooked. First, students who are ill prepared for university life can be
expected to face difficulties without considerable support being provided. Second, Australian
students pay for their higher education and, for those who are unsuccessful, will leave university
without a qualification and with a large education debt that will need to be repaid to the
Australian Government by being automatically taken from their salary until the debt has been
repaid (Department of Education and Training [DET], 2015). This debt is known as Higher
Education Contribution Scheme (HECS). Third, the goal to increase the level of education and
participation of the populations within the OECD member countries will have similar impact
in Australia and overseas, whereby students who fail to meet the entry requirements will need
considerable support. Understanding the level and type of support necessary for success is
currently not well known, or at best, undeveloped.
4 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
Research on student engagement within first-year university is linked directly to OECD
goals and is relevant to all member nations. The relevance and influence of the services
provided by universities to support the new and increased intakes of students warrants inquiry.
This research will provide a contribution towards guiding both academic staff and universities,
within Australia and around the world, to understand the needs of students as they enter their
first year of university. While the research will have specific relevance to the university campus
at which I work, it will also influence other campus locations and provide insights for a wider
university audience, nationally and internationally. While many students who are entering
university are ill prepared for success, they are coming in with their own goals, and it is
imperative that they are supported so they can succeed and realise their personal goals.
1.3 THESIS STRUCTURE
This chapter has outlined my professional journey and how my interest in this topic of
first-year experience (FYE) has developed over time. Changes in the Australian higher
education sector has meant that students pay substantial fees, and when coupled with reduced
entry requirements, many students are ill prepared to gain entry, are subsequently challenged
by university expectations, and potentially leave university with a higher education tuition debt.
This is a significant problem in terms of retention of students, the personal impact that accrues,
and the wider social and economic outcomes that emerge. A deeper appreciation of the
experience of first-year students is important to offset the unintended consequences of this
phenomenon. The remainder of this chapter outlines the structure of the thesis indicating the
content of each chapter.
1.3.1 Chapter 2: Identifying the research problem
To locate the thread of influence that has led to the research problem, a review of
international grey literature was needed. This review provides an understanding of the
importance of the international context, with particular consideration of the influence of the
Chapter 1: Overview of Study 5
OECD education goals on Australian higher education. As a member nation of OECD, the
Australian Government has agreed to work toward reaching the aspirational goals of the OECD.
With this in mind, the discussion in Chapter 2 commences with a review of the OECD
educational goals, followed by the Australian Government’s response. This response can be
seen in the form of the Bradley Review (Bradley et al., 2008) that recommended increasing
student bachelor’s degree enrolments to allow for Australia to reach its goal of 40% of
Australians aged 24–35 with a bachelor’s degree by 2025. Measures taken by Australia and
other OECD countries to prepare for this are also identified. This discussion is followed by the
ACU response and then in particular how this has impacted initial teacher education on the
Banyo campus in Brisbane. The chapter concludes by identifying the research problem and
purpose, which guided the review of the literature.
1.3.2 Chapter 3: Literature review
Extending the grey literature presented in Chapter 2, a review and synthesis of the
research literature relating to influences on FYE is presented in Chapter 3. In this chapter, three
main themes have been generated from the research literature review, namely, FYE transition,
What students bring to university, and University provisions for FYE students. An outcome of
this literature review is that gaps in the research became evident that led to the generation of
the research question. This question was used to guide the selection of methodology for this
study. The research question is as follows:
How do first-year Bachelor of Education (Primary) students at Australian Catholic
University (ACU) on the Brisbane campus engage with supports and experience university
life, and can a tool be developed to assess engagement that will benefit the wider higher
education community?
6 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
1.3.3 Chapter 4: Methodology
This study is situated within a constructionist epistemological stance and uses a symbolic
interactionist theoretical lens to guide the case study that investigated a cohort of Bachelor of
Education (Primary) students entering university. The investigation invited participation from
150 first-year students and three non-academic staff members. Data collection methods
included questionnaire and interviews during two phases of data collection across the year.
Quantitative data analysis used the IBM Statistical Package for the Social Sciences 25
©
(SPSS),
a sophisticated statistical package supporting the display of descriptive statistics and calculation
of inferential statistics. Qualitative data collected through interviews used constant comparative
analysis (Creswell, 2008) as the analysis strategy.
1.3.4 Chapter 5: Findings
Chapter 5 commences with a discussion of the Study Process Questionnaire (SPQ; Biggs,
1987) completed by 93 of the 150 students in the Bachelor of Education (Primary) course. The
findings from the SPQ informed the development of the interview protocol used for semi-
structured in-depth focus group interviews and the semi-structured in-depth individual
interviews. The semi-structured in-depth focus group interviews were conducted with five
groups of six students, and the semi-structured in-depth individual interviews were conducted
with nine students and three non-academic staff. In response to the data provided during these
interviews, three students were reinterviewed to gain further in-depth understanding of their
FYEs; therefore, the total number of individual interviews was 15. Results for each of these
phases of data collection and analysis are displayed in this chapter, which concludes with a
summary of the findings.
1.3.5 Chapter 6: Discussion of findings and conclusion
The primary research question developed in Chapter 3 is discussed in Chapter 6 using the
findings generated in Chapter 5. These findings are also discussed in relation to the research
Chapter 1: Overview of Study 7
literature. Specifically, the discussion focuses on the main factors that influence first-year
Bachelor of Education (Primary) students. Use of symbolic interactionism guides the
advancement of theoretical propositions, and a theoretical framework of factors that influence
first-year student experiences is advanced. This chapter also presents the conclusions and
recommendations of the research, summarises the limitations of the study, and provides a
concluding comment and a clear overview of the study.
Chapter 2: Identifying the Research Problem 9
Chapter 2: Identifying the Research Problem
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Chapter 1 provided an overview of the study. The purpose of Chapter 2 is to extend the
discussion in Chapter 1 by examining the grey literature to explore the context for this study
further. This review culminates in the justification of the research problem and research
purpose. To this end, this chapter is structured in five sections. Section 2.2 addresses the
international context that draws on the OECD and its influence on member countries to improve
enrolments in higher education. Section 2.3 focuses on the Australian higher education context
and specifically identifies the premise behind the Bradley Review (Bradley et al., 2008) in
response to the OECD goals for its member nations and what Australia has done to increase its
enrolments into higher education by 2025. This section also examines the importance of initial
teacher education programs and the acceptance of students with low admission scores into
universities. Section 2.4 explores the ACU responses, with a focus on the Faculty of Education
and Arts responses, which then leads to a discussion on the School of Education. Section 2.5
provides the researcher’s experience in brief, and Section 2.6 concludes Chapter 2 with the
identification and justification of the research problem and the research purpose.
2.2 INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT
When considering the influence that the international context has on higher education it
is relevant for an Australian study to consider the influence of the OECD. The OECD is an
international organisation that focuses on developing and promoting policies to effectively
create better lives for the populations of member nations (OECD, 2019a). More precisely, its
sole purpose is to “shape policies that foster prosperity, equality, opportunity and well-being
for all” (OECD, 2019a, para. 1). For this goal to be realised, the policies of the OECD need to
be implemented by member countries as part of their national priorities.
10 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
There are 36 member countries in the OECD, with each country being represented by
members of the council and advisors who engage in making programs to ensure better
performances across the globe. Policies range from interests in economics to science and
education. Of interest to this study is the focus on education and, more specifically, higher
education. OECD documentation has expressed a level of concern about the performance of
countries in meeting education, research, and engagement responsibilities and the impact this
may have on the long-term economic advancement of its member countries (OECD, 2019b).
Entry into post-secondary education has been defined by the OECD as short-cycle tertiary
programs, non-tertiary programs, and bachelor’s or master’s degree programs (OECD, 2019c).
Further, “vocational education and training can also be a pathway to tertiary education” (OECD,
2019c, p. 32) and is generally considered for young people aged 15–24 years. In 2017, 18% of
this age group across OECD member countries were enrolled in such programs, with young men
enrolling at a higher rate than young women (OECD, 2019c). In Australia, 23% of males and
17% of females aged 15–24 years were recorded as being enrolled in vocational education and
training (VET) programs in this report (OECD, 2019c).
2.2.1 An increase in tertiary education enrolments across OECD countries
Current research within the OECD indicates that the demand for all forms of tertiary
education, that is, post-secondary school, is increasing (OECD, 2019c). The OECD identifies
that, averaged across all OECD countries, 44% of 25- to 34-year-olds have obtained some form
3
of tertiary qualification in 2018, in comparison to 35% in 2008 (OECD, 2019c). This demand
could include the fact that countries are experiencing an increase in demand for a skilled labour
force, leading to heightened demand for post-secondary education that will ultimately lead to
increasing wealth and growth. This in turn leads to policies of support to promote the post-
secondary education sector and its accessibility to all (OECD, 2018a). Moreover, adults with a
3
For example; this could include short-cycle programs that are designed to provide students with knowledge,
skills, and competencies prior to entering the workforce or moving to a bachelor’s program (OECD, 2019c).
Chapter 2: Identifying the Research Problem 11
bachelor’s degree make up most of this growth as each member country strives to increase the
percentage of their population with university qualifications. Figure 2.1 identifies the growth in
percentages of reported post-secondary education in a small selection of OECD countries
between 2008 and 2018.
Figure 2.1. Percentage of tertiary-educated 25- to 34-year-olds, selected countries, 2008–2018.
Adapted from Education at a Glance 2019: OECD Indicators, by OECD, 2019
(https://doi.org/10.1787/f8d7880d-en). Copyright 2019 by the OECD.
Notably, Korea has moved from 58% to 68% of its population with some form of tertiary
qualification, and Canada identifies as having improved from 55% to 62% of 25- to 34-year-
old members of the population with a tertiary qualification of some form. Further, OECD
research reports that the number of adults graduating with a tertiary qualification is set to
increase by approximately 30% across OECD countries and G20 countries by 2030 (OECD,
2018b). For example, China aims to increase its tertiary graduates from 17% to 27% and India
from 14% to 23% (OECD, 2018b). In comparison, OECD research has other advanced
economies such as the United Kingdom and Australia attaining rates of 50% (OECD, 2019c)
of the 25- to 34-year-old population with some form of tertiary qualification.
The data reported by the OECD differ from those reported within Australia. Australian
sources report the percentage of the population with a bachelor level qualification, which is a
very different metric from that of any post-secondary or tertiary qualification reported by the
0
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12 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
OECD. Interestingly, Figure 2.2 shows that Australia has 27.3% (Granwal, 2019) of the overall
population with a bachelor’s degree or above. Noting these differences in definition between
tertiary qualification and a bachelor’s degree is important. Nonetheless, OECD countries are
also trying to increase their percentage of the populations with a bachelor level qualification.
Figure 2.2. Share of population who hold a bachelor level degree or above in Australia from 2012 to
2018. Adapted from Share of population who hold a bachelor level degree or above in Australia from
1989 to 2018, by L. Granwal, 2019 (https://www.statista.com/statistics/612854/australia-population-
with-university-degree/). Copyright 2019 by Statista.
Providing additional support to students with a view to assisting a wider demographic to
attend university has assisted many countries to increase their student enrolment and graduation
rates. For example, in Norway and the Netherlands, students with young children are offered
financial support to assist them, while students with special needs could be offered ways in
which they can study at their own pace (OECD, 2019b). Further, OECD member countries
promote application numbers through financial support that is specifically directed at people
with low incomes as it is argued that financial assistance makes tertiary education more
accessible for these students. Of the countries that have the highest university fees, more than
70% of students benefit from financial support by means of loans or grants (OECD, 2019c).
“More than 40% of 19-20-year-olds in nearly half of OECD countries are enrolled in tertiary
21
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2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Share of population in %
Share of population who hold a bachelor level degree or above in
Australia
Chapter 2: Identifying the Research Problem 13
programmes and the average age at entry into a bachelor’s programme ranges from 18 in Japan
to 25 in Switzerland” (OECD, 2019c, p. 23).
The quality of tertiary students entering university is a critical factor for higher education
to consider alongside the goal of increasing participation, as all students need a skill set to lay
the “foundation to succeed in higher education and acquire advanced skills and knowledge”
(OECD, 2019b, p. 234). This foundational knowledge and skill set is assessed by the OECD
during the final years of formal schooling through the establishment and implementation of the
Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA; OECD, 2019d) and has been
described as a quality educational resource (Auld, Rappleye, & Morris, 2019). PISA’s purpose
is to evaluate “the quality, equity and efficiency of school systems” (OECD, 2018d, p. 2). It
provides data that showcase what students in the highest performing and fast-improving
countries can do as well as permits direct comparisons of results across the member countries
(OECD, 2018d). The results of the test also assist governments to then consider how they can
improve their education provisions to align more closely with OECD policies on education
(OECD, 2018d), which aim to promote increasing quality of lifestyle for member nations.
PISA has completed seven data collection cycles, with each cycle occurring every three
years. The PISA test assesses 15-year-old students’ application of key concepts in subjects that
assist in preparing them for life after school. The last period of assessment was undertaken in
2018, where students were assessed in the areas of literacy (the main focus), mathematics and
science. In addition, the students’ world views and perspective of others were also assessed and
evaluated. Proficiency is allocated across six levels with six being the top level. Across the OECD
countries, PISA assessment indicates that 80% of 15-year-olds reached proficiency level 2 or
higher in reading in 2015 (OECD, 2016). In the 2015 report, it is noted that if a student reaches
level 2, they are then considered as being able to fully participate in life following school, but this
does not necessarily extend to attending university. Further, if they reach level 6, then they are
capable of critical evaluation in problem solving and are well prepared for university life.
14 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
Across the member countries, there is a discrepancy between the education systems in
terms of their students’ proficiency in reading and financial literacy, based on PISA results
(OECD, 2019b). In countries such as Canada, Ireland, and Finland, 90% of students reach a
minimum of level 2 proficiency in reading and financial literacy and in Norway and Estonia
80% and 85% respectively (OECD, 2019b). In contrast, in Turkey and Mexico less than 60%
are reaching this basic level of reading and financial literacy. Countries such as the USA,
Poland, Italy, and Australia are all well above the OECD average in financial literacy with a
proficiency level 5, as opposed to Brazil, Peru, and Chile with a proficiency level 1 (OECD,
2016). Some of the countries performing at lower levels are well below the OECD average and
do not meet proficiency level 2, such as Algeria, Lebanon, and Indonesia (OECD, 2016). It can
therefore be argued that the overarching goal of the OECD to improve the knowledge and skills
of students in these countries has considerable distance to go before it is met.
The OECD does argue that it is the responsibility of these countries to supervise
movements in their students’ achievement of knowledge and their skills, suggesting that extra
provisions need to be made while also arguing that every country has room for improvement
(OECD, 2016). Nonetheless, it is reported that 44% of 15-year-olds across OECD countries are
reaching the proficiency level needed to gain entry into post-secondary courses (OECD, 2016).
Also worthy of note is that the PISA competencies that are measured at 15 years of age are now
“better viewed as a starting point” to assess whether further formal education will occur after
school as students are potentially more willing to devote extra time and effort into furthering
their education (Borgonovi, Pokropek, Keslair, Gauly, & Paccagnella, 2017, p. 11). It is not
surprising then that for countries such as Hong Kong and Singapore (OECD, 2016), where
students attain strong results from the PISA test, they are more likely to attend university or
post-secondary educational facilities (Borgonovi et al., 2017). In contrast, in countries where
students perform poorly there is a higher risk of them not participating in post-secondary
education at all.
Chapter 2: Identifying the Research Problem 15
Even though PISA is considered a reputable resource (Auld et al., 2019), this was not
always the case. The OECD test has also been criticised for highlighting cognitive abilities and
the knowledge of the student themselves (Auld et al., 2019) and that a focus on the levels of
happiness of the student has been neglected (Schleicher, 2015). In response, the OECD has now
included discussions around student well-being and happiness with the development of the
OECD Learning Framework, 2030 (OECD, 2018b). With these amendments to their testing
regime, a focus on the well-being and happiness of students will be included in future testing
cycles (Auld et al., 2019).
It is the responsibility of the OECD to assess how well each member country’s education
system is performing against their goals and then to compare these results against the other
member countries. Each member country also assesses their responsibilities to further enhance
their expectations of reaching the goals to improve education standards and provide more
students with access and ultimate success in higher education. Higher education systems
operate differently in each OECD member country with each trying to improve; however, they
all still face similar problems in terms of university enrolments, funding, and acceptable
standards for entry.
2.2.2 Comparisons of some OECD countries
In view of the push to increase participation in university across OECD countries, it is
important to compare some of the OECD countries in terms of tuition fees, entry requirements,
alternative pathways, supports, and provisions made for students entering university. However,
as the OECD documents are diverse, it is difficult to precisely identify each country and
compare all of them.
Although university entry requirements in OECD member countries vary according to
their matriculation standard (OECD, 2018c), it is estimated that approximately 60% of young
adults across OECD countries will attend some form of higher education institution (OECD,
16 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
2019b). For example, in countries such as Turkey, where literacy levels are recorded as low on
PISA, almost all adults are expected to enter a tertiary program of some form; and in Lithuania,
approximately three quarters of young adults are expected to enter post-secondary school
education (OECD, 2019b).
Across OECD countries, universities and higher education institutions differ in terms of
the fields of study, ranges of courses provided, levels of study, and supports they provide
(OECD, 2019b). Countries such as Finland, Norway, Estonia, and the Netherlands offer
supports for pre-service teacher programs in the form of funding. For example, in Finland, these
programs are fully funded by the government, are very popular and entry is through a
competitive process, with only one in four accepted to complete their pre-service teacher studies
(Darling-Hammond, 2017). In contrast, Norway has announced that as of 2025, if a graduate
has been teaching for at least three of the first six years upon graduating, then part of their
student loan will be converted into a grant.
At the other end of student entry to pre-service teacher education programs is Estonia,
where the number of students enrolled in teacher education programs is below the OECD
average, and as a result the government has begun to offer funded scholarships to increase
enrolments. These scholarships are based on students’ grades, the progress of their study, and
where they plan to teach after graduation. Another incentive for teacher education students in
Estonia is that they are exempt from tuition fees (OECD, 2019b) so long as students are studying
full-time. Like that of Estonia, the Norwegian government has developed incentives to attract
young people into teacher education programs whereby they “pay lower tuition fees and no fees
in public institutions regardless of whether they have already gained a qualification in a
different field of study” (OECD, 2019b, p. 234).
Entry requirements differ for some countries as well; for example, in the Flemish
community, students are required to complete a 2- to 3-year master’s degree before entering the
teaching profession, and in the USA, the universities are very selective when choosing their
Chapter 2: Identifying the Research Problem 17
students and maintain that all students wishing to enter must complete a comprehensive
preparation program (Darling-Hammond, 2017).
In many OECD member countries, such as the Netherlands and Norway, there are a
number of entry pathways to university. In Norway, for example, there are several pathways
into higher education, and it is standard practice that all students must demonstrate competence
in secondary education or vocational subjects whereby students are expected to have passed
academic subjects such as Norwegian, Mathematics, Natural Sciences, Social Studies, English,
and History (Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research, 2015; OECD, 2018c). Students
over 23 years of age may also enter university if they have 5 years of work experience. Students
who do not have sufficient credentials to satisfy entry requirements may be required to sit an
entrance exam before being offered a position at their chosen university. Half of the places on
offer are held for students under 21 years of age and the other half for older students. In contrast,
universities in Estonia and China do not offer alternative pathways into university (OECD,
2019b); however, Australian higher education has introduced programs to increase the number
of students entering university.
2.3 AUSTRALIAN HIGHER EDUCATION
2.3.1 Overview of Australian higher education
Australian higher education has undergone major changes over the past 30 years (Bradley
et al., 2008; Connell, 2008; Foster, 2010; Krause & Coates, 2008). In 1987 John Dawkins, the
Federal Minister for Employment, Education and Training under the Hawke Government,
released his review of the higher education sector (Dawkins, 1987). He proposed a rise in
graduates as well as the amalgamation of smaller higher education providers such as Colleges
of Advanced Education, with a view to creating a system of fewer, larger universities “to
enhance the system’s adaptability, effectiveness and capacity to deliver increased numbers of
graduates” (DET, 2015, p. 11) in conjunction with OECD goals for member countries. The
18 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
subsequent white paper (Dawkins, 1988), seen as a statement of government policy, ushered in
the beginning of the reorganisation of the current higher education system (DET, 2015). The
overarching idea driving the white paper was to establish “capacity and effectiveness of the
higher education sector” (DET, 2015, p. 11). This reorganisation of the higher education system
saw the abolition of the “binary system” (DET, 2015, p. 12) where the number of institutions
that provided higher education dropped from 73 to 38 fully accredited universities (DET, 2015).
Another change in the higher education system in Australia was the introduction of fees
in 1989 under the title of HECS. The scheme is still an integral part of the Australian higher
education system, whereby it has moved a large proportion of the cost of higher education from
the government to students. Each year fees are estimated by the Consumer Price Index and this
has allowed for the expansion of higher education in Australia (Jackson, 2003). Students have
a choice to either pay upfront and receive a 25% discount or defer their payment and pay once
their degree is completed, based on the compulsory repayment threshold. This is ultimately
dependent on the income of the student (Jackson, 2003) and this continues today.
A series of other major reviews followed over subsequent years. For example, the West
review in 1998 (West, 1998) investigated options for the funding of higher education covering
both research and teaching. This was followed by the Nelson review (B. Nelson, 2002), which
considered a balance between public and private funding of higher education and whether a
return to no fees would benefit the students and/or the government.
In 2008, the Bradley Review was “established to address the question of whether
education is structured, organised and financed to position Australia to compete effectively in
the new globalised economy” (Bradley et al., 2008, p. xi) and remain competitive with other
OECD countries. Moreover, it was argued in the Bradley Review that Australia may be
excluded from the premier group of OECD countries aligned with performance and
participation if the government failed to initiate appropriate reforms and increase student
Chapter 2: Identifying the Research Problem 19
numbers (Bradley et al., 2008) and that major reforms needed to be implemented in Australia
to ensure quality comparability with OECD performance in higher education.
While Bradley concluded that the Australian higher education system had many strengths,
she identified multiple challenges that, if not addressed, might influence Australian universities
becoming uncompetitive in performance and investment when compared to universities in other
developed countries (Bradley et al., 2008). Bradley’s review resulted in 46 recommendations.
The aim at the time was to achieve a target of 40% of the population of 25- to 34-year-olds as
holders of at least a bachelor’s degree by 2020, later negotiated to 2025 (Bradley et al., 2008,
p. xiv); at the time of the report, attainment was at 29.2% (Birrell, Rapson, & Smith, 2010). In
order to meet this goal, Bradley recommended that student enrolments be increased in
undergraduate courses. To achieve this, the government introduced the uncapping of entry
places, thereby allowing more students to enter university. In an effort to support this
recommendation, universities have considered widening student participation to those with
lower entry scores. To further support the overall goal of an increase by 40%, Bradley also
recommended that by 2020, the Australian Government have increased by 20% the enrolments
of low SES students (Dow & Kempner, 2010); however, this has also been subsequently
renegotiated to 2025. To support this recommendation, students from low SES backgrounds
and Indigenous students were invited to enrol in courses through alternative pathways if they
did not meet the entry requirements for a traditional entry.
To achieve this increase in student enrolments, all universities receiving Commonwealth
funds needed to establish programs that supported the success of newly enrolled students from
disadvantaged backgrounds who are typically not well prepared for university (Bradley et al.,
2008). At the time, it was expected that universities would provide academic mentoring and
ongoing support (Bradley et al., 2008). Another target outlined by Bradley et al. (2008, p. xiii)
was to “enable national benchmarking against other OECD countries to track system quality
and performance”. This has been achieved through the benchmarking report comparing higher
20 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
education in some OECD countries (OECD, 2019b). Further to this, the OECD have also
prepared reports (past and present) on OECD indicators and provide relevant data on the
performance of education systems and their structures (OECD, 2019a).
Worthy of note is that the OECD in 2005 placed Australia ninth of the 30 member
countries at that time when considering the percentage of the population aged 25–34 with
degree-level qualifications (Bradley et al., 2008). The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS,
2018) reported that in 2016 the proportion of adults in this age group across Australia who have
a bachelor’s degree or higher was 35%, up from the figure of 26% reported in 2006 (see Figure
2.3). This overall figure does not accurately represent the proportion of the age group with a
bachelor’s degree within each state of Australia, however. In South Australia and Western
Australia, for instance, the proportion is just over 30%, and in Queensland under 30%, which
is well below the espoused goal of 40% recorded in the Bradley Review (2008). Worthy of note
in Figure 2.3 are Tasmania and the Northern Territory, both of which lag behind. In contrast, in
the Australian Capital Territory the proportion is above the Bradley Review target, while
Victoria and New South Wales are very close to it (ABS, 2018; Bolton, 2019). It is clear,
however, that the lower populated states require assistance to improve university enrolments as
their growth in student graduations has slowed down (Bolton, 2019). It was recommended
(Bradley et al., 2008) that assistance be offered to prospective students from low SES areas and
that operational costs of running a university should also be subsidised in the lower populated
states, along with the target of increasing enrolments of school leavers, first in family and
Indigenous students. These calls for support continue (Bolton, 2019).
Chapter 2: Identifying the Research Problem 21
Figure 2.3. Percentage of 25- to 34-year-olds who have a bachelor’s degree or higher in Australia up
to and including 2016. Adapted from Education and Work, Australia, May 2018, by the Australian
Bureau of Statistics, 2018 (https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/mf/6227.0). Copyright 2018 by
the Commonwealth of Australia.
The Bradley Review (2008) identified the major target group from which to increase
student numbers as the low SES category. Since her review, the focus has been on further
widening participation with the inclusion of Indigenous people from remote and regional areas.
Widening participation is recognised as increasing admission to learning as well as optimising
opportunities for success for the wider population (Rissman, Carrington, & Bland, 2013). This
includes three main components: increasing the awareness of higher education, increasing the
aspirations for higher education, and developing processes and strategies that assist these
students to gain entry to university. Once students begin university, it is imperative to offer
strategies that support them. Further, access without support is not recommended and the higher
education sector have a responsibility to offer accessible processes to all students through
practical polices and responses (Devlin, 2010).
The need for the higher education sector to take responsibility can be seen in part from
studies where some students from low SES backgrounds have been identified as “problem
students” (McKay & Devlin, 2016, p. 347), but they can also “demonstrate high levels of
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22 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
determination and academic skills and actively seek high standards in their studies” (McKay &
Devlin, 2016, p. 347). Many are the first in their family to attend university (Carpenter,
Dearlove, & Marland, 2014; Devlin & O’Shea, 2011) and as a result potentially have limited
knowledge of the university context. Consequently, they are unable to rely on parental advice
to understand the expectations of the university (Collier & Morgan, 2008). Caution with this
type of discussion has been called for as it is considered inappropriate to stereotype low SES
students, and current research challenges this conception of such students (McKay & Devlin,
2016). Further, this research reports that these students have experienced multiple and varied
challenges and being first in family may not be the major challenge. Rather, it may contribute
to building their resilience (McKay & Devlin, 2016). The conclusion offered is that these
students “need to be valued for their unique experiences and challenges” as this may well make
them more determined to achieve success (McKay & Devlin, 2016, p. 347). Such challenges
include full-time employment needed to meet financial pressures, and personal responsibilities.
Moreover, balancing work, life, and study responsibilities has proven difficult (McKay &
Devlin, 2016). Notwithstanding, since 2012, student enrolments from low SES backgrounds in
Australian higher education have increased from 15% to 20%, with the target set by the
government following the Bradley Review likely to be met if most students graduate (Chapman,
Mangion, & Buchanan, 2015; McKay & Devlin, 2016). While this growth has been positive,
Kift (2019) suggests that it will be a challenge to continue to increase education participation
and attainment by students from such backgrounds, as well as students in rural and remote
locations. She does, however, acknowledge that the government is committed to establishing a
new funding model to support rural and regional higher education, which may change the
outlook into the future with a new priority group being targeted.
A myriad of government support schemes and agencies already exist, with one particular
scheme important for this discussion. This scheme supports regional, rural, and remote places
and was established in 2018 in response to the Halsey Review (2017), which announced that
Chapter 2: Identifying the Research Problem 23
students in these places will be given access to higher education with the “commitment to
improve the education of country students so they can reach their full potential and participate
in Australia’s economy” (Department of Education, Skills and Employment [DESE], 2018,
para. 1). The move towards university access for regional, rural, and remote students has
received an added bonus recently, with the government announcing that the number of regional
places has been increased to 25,000, up from the previous allocation of 23,000 (Mulder, 2019).
Australian Indigenous people and students from remote and regional areas are also
encouraged to access university education, be it in either mainstream programs or specifically
designed programs. If students do not move away from home to attend university, then they are
more likely to study Indigenous-specific programs, which usually run as an intensive mode,
also often termed block mode (Asmar, Page, & Radloff, 2011). The intensive mode of study
usually includes short visits to campus over the semester with in-depth periods of study off
campus. This mode of study allows students to attend to family and community responsibilities
and to maintain employment (Asmar et al., 2011). This form of study differs from mainstream
courses delivered on campus where Indigenous students participate alongside non-Indigenous
peers. Moreover, teacher education candidates who are Indigenous or demonstrate connections
with their communities and knowledge of Aboriginal issues are prioritised for acceptance into
teacher education programs (Darling-Hammond, 2017).
It is evident from the commitment of the Australian Government to the recommendations
of various reviews that they are focused on enhancing the quality of tertiary education and also
opening it up to a wider cohort of students (OECD, 2018a). This is evident in several programs
but more so in the Higher Education Participation and Partnerships Program (HEPPP). The
main aim of this program is to assist Australian students from low SES backgrounds to study
at university and offer them opportunities to do so (DESE, 2020; OECD, 2018a). Depending
on the number of enrolled students, funding is provided to assist universities and stakeholders
to “undertake activities and implement strategies that improve access to undergraduate courses
24 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
… as well as improving the retention and completion rates of those students” (OECD, 2018a,
p. 181).
While it is clear that the intention is to open universities up to students from all
demographics, recent reforms have been implemented within the higher education sector that
are designed “to improve transparency, accountability, affordability and responsiveness to the
aspirations of students and future workforce needs” (Commonwealth of Australia, 2017, p.
143). The reforms include a freeze on Commonwealth Grant Scheme funding from 2018,
especially for bachelor’s degree courses available in 2018 and 2019, which is now deemed as
capping of funds and brings about financial disadvantages for students from all demographics.
Further, universities are expected to provide performance targets to regulate the growth in their
Commonwealth Grant Scheme funding for bachelor’s degrees from 2020. This means that
funding would be capped at the growth rate in the age bracket of 18- to 64-year-olds and is now
locked at the 2017/2018 levels irrespective of the increases in enrolments in higher education.
Other reforms include “a combined limit for all tuition fee assistance under all HELP [Higher
Education Loans Program] and VET Student Loans” (Commonwealth of Australia, 2017, p. 9).
HELP is a loans program that assists tertiary education students with the fees and costs incurred.
The repayment of these loans depends on the students’ circumstances, how much was borrowed
and how much they will earn once graduated. From July 2018, a new minimum payment
threshold of “$45,000 with a 1 per cent repayment rate and a maximum threshold of $131,989
with a 10 per cent repayment rate” was put into place (Commonwealth of Australia, 2017, p.
143). Included in these reforms are the repayments for VET student loans and a variety of other
loans for students entering university.
2.3.2 Initial Teacher Education
While the discussion to this point has been about higher education in general, pre-service
teacher education is the focus of this study. A review carried out by the Teacher Education
Ministerial Advisory Group (TEMAG, 2014) recommended ways for initial teacher education
Chapter 2: Identifying the Research Problem 25
(ITE) to be improved and how institutions may better prepare new teachers. Their findings
related to the following areas:
• raising the quality of initial teacher education;
• preparing effective teachers—integration of theory and practice;
• assuring classroom readiness;
• supporting beginning teachers through induction;
• strengthening national capability; and
• workforce planning and challenges (TEMAG, 2014, pp. xvii–xix).
The review focused on an authentic desire to understand and change the overarching ideas
about learning to teach (Ingvarson, 2016; Tatto, Richmond, & Carter Andrews, 2016). More
specifically, the aim was to understand teacher education in its entirety and the preparation of
teachers entering the field in Australia (Rowan, Mayer, Kline, Kostogriz, & Walker-Gibbs,
2015). Consequently, all ITE providers are required to have existing teacher education
programs accredited with their state’s teacher registration authority and for new programs to
comply with the expectations of the Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership
(AITSL). AITSL recommends that all providers are capable of demonstrating evidence against
the nationally agreed Accreditation Standards and Procedures (AITSL, 2019b). These standards
are incorporated in processes of registration for entering the teaching profession on the
completion of a student’s teaching degree to enhance the quality of early career teachers
(AITSL, 2019b).
The TEMAG Report (2014) emphasised a need for graduating teachers to have
proficiency in discipline knowledge, such as literacy and numeracy. These requirements set the
standard as the graduates prepared themselves for entering the profession (Tatto et al., 2016).
High-quality practice that required proficiency in discipline knowledge was identified as an
important indicator of a competent teacher. The conclusion of the report was that students must
demonstrate the required teaching standards across all ITE programs before graduating
26 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
(TEMAG, 2014). As a result, applicants for the Bachelor of Education (Primary) degree and all
ITE programs must meet academic and non-academic entry requirements. Academic entry
requirements include subject prerequisites in Mathematics, English, and Science, specified as
part of the OP score or the ATAR (Queensland Tertiary Admissions Centre [QTAC], 2020a).
To meet the academic requirements for a course offer, applicants’ results and additional
qualifications are considered, including the following:
• senior secondary (Year 12) results;
• successful prior study at university or VET level;
• successful completion of relevant professional qualifications; and
• approved admissions tests (QTAC, 2020a).
The non-academic entry requirement is met by applicants through an online questionnaire
and personal statement that demonstrates the AITSL competencies (QTAC, 2019). In the
personal statement two categories that highlight the applicant’s understanding and motivations
for becoming a teacher must be addressed. Category 1 focuses on the applicant’s interest,
motivations and suitability in teaching children and Category 2 focuses on the applicant’s
involvement in personal learning and leadership activities (QTAC, 2019).
Beyond these pathways, there are some minor variations, especially when associated with
“special entry” (Australian Council for Educational Research [ACER], 2010). Specific
criterion, such as entry scores, test scores or grade point averages are the most important and
are used for the selection process for alternative pathways. While alternative pathways exist, it
is also important to keep in mind that demand for teacher education places is strong and because
of this demand some university places must be restricted (Norton & Cakitaki, 2016). At the
time of this study, no additional data were available for those students entering university
through alternative pathways or retention of students. Considering this, students are not only
entering university with an ATAR or OP but are also expected to meet other requirements such
Chapter 2: Identifying the Research Problem 27
as the non-academic and academic requirements through QTAC, specifically for students
entering a university in Queensland.
Further, there have been concerns around the clarity of admissions processes, as ITE
providers and the government have sought to balance the need for demand, while also providing
equity of access and participation (AITSL, 2019b). Moreover, efforts to professionalise
teaching have also grown. In the past there has been an undersupply of qualified teachers in
some remote areas and therefore governments have developed schemes that offer incentives,
such as guaranteed work and accommodation to pre-service teachers and those who wish to
teach in these hard-to-staff areas (Queensland Government, 1995–2020).
Providing greater access to all has meant that teaching degrees have been popular among
first-generation university students (Southgate & Bennett, 2014), with a larger proportion of
Indigenous students and students from low SES backgrounds and regional areas enrolled in ITE
over other areas of study (AITSL, 2019b). It has been argued that a culturally diverse teaching
workforce positively reflects a broader proportion of the population; therefore, it has been
claimed that it is Australia’s intention to attract individuals from marginalised racial and
cultural groups (Bireda & Chait, 2011; More Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Teachers
Initiative, 2017; Poloma, 2014).
Louden (2008) drew attention to the quality of ITE as the changes were being introduced.
In order to respond to this and similar concerns, the Federal Government initiated a review of
ITE by tightening national guidelines for the accreditation of programs and the selection of
teacher candidates (AITSL, 2015a; AITSL, 2015b). These guidelines offered indicators that
were used for “students from equity groups whose academic capability cannot accurately be
determined from common or conventional measures of prior academic achievement” (AITSL,
2015b, p. 4). Moreover, they also indicated that incoming pre-service teachers should have the
necessary academic requirements, such as the correct levels of numeracy and literacy (AITSL,
2015b). In each state, requirements vary, and they have included specifics that increase the
28 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
difficulty of ITE admissions processes (DET, Victoria, 2016). Recent research by Gore, Barron,
Holmes, and Smith (2016) again highlights the concern with policy for admission practices into
ITE programs, and these claims were echoed by AITSL where it was argued that admission
requirements mainly target recent school leavers, comprising approximately 58% of applicants,
leaving just under half of applicants gaining entry to ITE programs that was not on the basis of
an ATAR (AITSL, 2019b).
2.3.3 Students with low admission scores
Students with low admission scores are being accepted into Australian universities and
the number is increasing (Baik et al., 2019; Norton, Cherastidtham, & Mackey, 2018). In
Australia, most students entering university are offered enrolment in response to their OP or
ATAR. The ATAR, however, is set to replace the Queensland equivalent, which is the OP, as
of 2020 (QTAC, 2020b). The OP ranges from 1 to 25, with 25 being the lowest (QTAC, 2020b,
“OP to ATAR conversion table” factsheet). The ATAR is a number between 0.00 and 99.95
that “is a percentile rank, not a mark … [and] indicates a student’s position relative to other
students in their age group in any given year” (QTAC, 2020b, “ATAR: An overview”
factsheet); for example, an ATAR of 80.00 means that a student is in the top 20% per cent of
their age group (QTAC, 2020b, “ATAR: An Overview” factsheet).
Institutions vary in terms of their admission requirements. For example, the general score
accepted to enter a Bachelor of Education (Primary) degree at ACU is an OP of 17 or an ATAR
of 65 (ACU, 2019d), compared to that of Queensland University of Technology (QUT) where
the OP is 13 and the ATAR is 72 (QUT, 2019). This is also comparative to Griffith University
where they accept applications with an OP of 13 and an ATAR of 71 (Griffith University, 2019).
These targets are set by each university independently of other universities and in response to
the availability of positions at universities; however, as discussed above, the government has
lifted the quota on students entering university, which is termed “uncapping” entry places
(Sadowski, Stewart, & Pediaditis, 2018). This uncapping of entry places was in response to the
Chapter 2: Identifying the Research Problem 29
recommendations of the Bradley Review (Bradley et al., 2008). This decision means that some
universities have accepted as many students as they can, and a direct outcome of this decision
has been that they filled their programs with students who have low entry scores. Further, the
uncapping of undergraduate places means that many teacher preparation programs are allowing
students to enter university with an ATAR below 50 and an OP as low as 25 (Baik et al., 2019;
McGraw & Fish, 2018).
As the requirements for entry to many ITE programs in Australian universities are now
low, students who gain entry may struggle with the requirements of their studies and the level
of engagement needed within their program. These changes stand in stark contrast to what has
previously been expected of students entering university. It was considered important that
teacher education programs attract “people of the highest calibre who value learning,
understand children and young people and have the skills, knowledge, values and attitudes
needed to enable them to meet the challenges of the 21
st
century” (Department of Education,
Science and Training, 2003, p. 65). Addressing this concern, there is evidence that the
universities of Australia are considering raising the status of teaching by mandating a minimum
standard of an ATAR of 80 (Aspland, 2019). This is to attract higher academic achievers while
at the same time preventing a shortage of teachers (Aspland, 2019).
Counterbalancing the issue of low standards on entry is the argument that it is the quality
of the graduate by the time they have completed their degree that is important, not their entry
score. While this position has been argued by the Australian universities, it is now being
addressed through the introduction of the Literacy and Numeracy Test for Initial Teacher
Education Students (LANTITE; ACER, 2020):
(the test) is designed to assess initial teacher education students’ personal literacy
and numeracy skills to ensure teachers are well equipped to meet the demands of
teaching and assist higher education providers, teacher employers and the general
30 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
public to have increased confidence in the skills of graduating teachers. (ACER,
2020, para. 1)
The LANTITE is expected to be undertaken and passed before graduation (ACER, 2020).
In most cases, if students do not pass the LANTITE before the expected graduation, then
students do not receive course completion, and therefore will not graduate, nor receive teacher
registration (ACER, 2020). The national results in 2018 indicated 90% of students met the
numeracy standards and 90.4% met the literacy standards prior to graduating (DESE, 2019).
Summarising these directions, Professor Tania Aspland, Dean of the Australian Council of
Deans of Education (ACDE), stated: “There is no way that teacher education providers will let
teaching students loose in classrooms unless they have passed ... [the LANTITE] and rigorous
means of demonstrating that teaching students meet robust national teacher professional
standards” (Aspland, 2019, paras. 2–3). Nonetheless, there are still approximately 10% of
teacher education students across Australia who complete the degree but do not meet the
requirements for teacher registration.
2.4 ACU CONTEXT
ACU is a public, not-for-profit university open to staff and students from all
denominations. The university comprises seven campuses across Australia. Six of the seven
campuses offer pre-service teacher education degrees. These are in Brisbane, Ballarat, North
Sydney, Strathfield, Canberra, and Melbourne. ACU’s National School of Education is the
second largest pre-service teacher education provider in Australia (ACU, 2019h). Consistent
with the uncapping of student places, student enrolments have exceeded expectations and the
student body has grown rapidly in the last few years. Currently ACU has approximately 32,000
students enrolled across all degrees and, 6,824 across all ITE degrees (ACU, 2019h).
The mission of the university states that “within the Catholic intellectual tradition and
acting in Truth and Love, Australian Catholic University is committed to the pursuit of
Chapter 2: Identifying the Research Problem 31
knowledge, the dignity of the human person and the common good” (ACU, 2019g, “Our
mission statement” section, para. 1). ACU policy documents also state the importance of
providing quality in teaching, research and service, along with providing outcomes that aspire
to engaging in free inquiry and academic integrity (ACU, 2019g). Further, university
documents, specifically the University Strategic Plan, also indicate that it is concerned with the
“dignity of human person” (ACU, 2019j, para. 3) and focus explicitly on the spiritual, social
and ethical dimensions of each person, along with “justice and equity” for all (ACU, 2019e,
“Highlighting the values” section, para. 2). Further noted in the Strategic Plan are the core
values of truth, service and academic excellence.
Another intention of the university is to prepare and produce graduates who have skills
and knowledge and who also demonstrate ethical behaviour (ACU, 2019e). This is done
through embedding the university’s graduate attributes in all ACU courses. These attributes
contribute to and are aligned with the university’s mission statement and are designed to support
student development in areas of ethics, knowledge and skills such that students are:
“Ethically informed and able to
1. demonstrate respect for the dignity of each individual and for human diversity
2. recognise their responsibility to the common good, the environment and society
3. apply ethical perspectives in informed decision making
Knowledgeable and able to
4. think critically and reflectively
5. demonstrate values, knowledge, skills and attitudes appropriate to the discipline
and/or profession
6. solve problems in a variety of settings taking local and international perspectives into
account
Skilful and able to
7. work both autonomously and collaboratively
32 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
8. locate, organise, analyse, synthesise and evaluate information
9. demonstrate effective communication in oral and written English language and visual
media
10. utilise information and communication and other relevant technologies effectively”
(ACU, 2019e, paras. 1–3).
The ACU mission statement, graduate attributes and catholic social teaching are embedded in
all units across the Bachelor of Education (Primary) degree within the Faculty of Education and
Arts (TEMAG, 2014).
2.4.1 Faculty of Education and Arts
The Faculty of Education and Arts indicates in its documentation that it is committed to
all students’ learning as the faculty has a “diverse community of learners” (Labone, 2019, para.
1). To this end, Professor Labone, the Executive Dean of the Faculty of Education and Arts,
states that it is the intention of the faculty to ensure that students are taught by experienced
educators and the programs offered designed to deepen students’ professional and practical
knowledge (Labone, 2019). The faculty also aligns its belief with the university’s mission and
values and continues to implement ACU’s Strategic Plan across the School of Education. All
ACU’s pre-service teacher education programs across campuses are student oriented and entail
a variety of learning options, such as on campus, online, or blended learning (ACU, 2019h).
These are designed to meet the professional standards for teachers (AITSL, 2019a) in Australia
and overseas (ACU, 2019h).
Entrance into the Brisbane-based Bachelor of Education (Primary) degree in 2019
required a minimum OP of 17 or ATAR of 65 (ACU, 2019d) or was through a range of non-
academic and other academic requirements set by QTAC (2019b). There are also further options
to enter ACU for students who do not receive the qualifying OP or ATAR. These were called
“bonus points” (ACDE, 2017) now referred to as “adjustment factors” (ACU, 2019b).
Chapter 2: Identifying the Research Problem 33
Adjustment factors are used to increase Year 12 OP or ATAR original scores. This is common
across all universities and underpinned by demographics such as personal background, the final
grade a student received in subjects when attending school, or whether the student attended a
regional school (ACU, 2019b). Of particular interest to the Brisbane campus is that students
who are eligible to enrol into a bachelor program will receive up to five OP points or six
selection ranks using the ATAR system if they meet the necessary criteria. In this context, it
can be argued that students entering the Bachelor of Education (Primary) degree with an OP 20
on completion of school who have been given the benefit of the adjustment factors are being
admitted with entry standards that are comparatively low (ACDE, 2017).
Further, there are a number of alternative pathways for students who either do not receive
the appropriate score or have not met the prerequisites for entry into the Bachelor of Education
(Primary) ITE degree at ACU, and this cohort of students varies from state to state (ACU,
2019i). In Queensland, students can apply directly to ACU for the Diploma in Educational
Studies, which is a tertiary preparation course. Students are required to successfully complete
this course and pass at least 40 credit points to meet the necessary entry prerequisites to the
Bachelor of Education (Primary) degree. Students can begin their teaching journey through
enrolling in the non-ITE Bachelor of Educational Studies program (ACU, 2019i). This is a
second pathway option and students are required to complete one year of full-time study to
meet the academic requirements. Students then transfer through QTAC to complete the
additional non-academic requirements to be then be offered a position into the Bachelor of
Education (Primary) degree (ACU, 2019i).
2.4.2 School of Education
This doctoral research is focused on first-year students in the School of Education on the
Brisbane campus. This discussion now turns to this context. Education students across all year
levels in the School of Education, Brisbane, exceeded 700 students in 2019 (ACU, 2019h). In
particular, the Bachelor of Education (Primary) degree, Brisbane campus, had 123 enrolments
34 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
for 2019 in first year. The degree is four years full-time and includes academic education and
professional education, the latter of which includes professional experience placements in
educational contexts throughout the degree (ACU, 2019h).
Support for new students entering the Banyo campus of ACU is offered through a range
of student support services, such as access to and training in the associated library skills using
helpful online toolkits where everything a student needs is provided to make sure they use the
library successfully and efficiently (ACU, 2019f). Further, students are encouraged to “set
yourself up for success by developing your learning skills in a supportive, encouraging
environment with our Academic Skills Unit” (ACU, 2019a, para 1). Other options of relevance
are the sporting clubs (ACU, 2018), social activities and the local McAuley Student Association
(McASA; ACU, 2019c), all of which add to student awareness, engagement within community,
and the development of personal and professional networks. Students are invited to join clubs,
meet new friends, and engage in activities that are designed to build confidence and develop
leadership skills by becoming involved in a range of on-campus activities and campus life more
generally. Further, McASA is run by local students from across all faculties and there are a
variety of opportunities allowing students to interact with students from other degrees (ACU,
2019c), for example, by becoming a member of the executive committee for McASA.
Another option open to students on the Brisbane campus is to become part of the
Mentoring Program, run by the School of Education. This was developed in 2009 by an
academic staff member (Coordinator of the Mentoring Program) of the Faculty of Education
and Arts. This program is introduced to the students during Orientation Day and those students
who enrol are known as “mentees”. The mentees are assigned a mentor (second-, third- or
fourth-year education student), who assists with their transition into university.
This program was developed to assist incoming first-year students with their transition into
university, particularly during the first six weeks. The main objective of the program is to offer
new education students the chance to liaise with an experienced student. A mentor may offer
Chapter 2: Identifying the Research Problem 35
advice to new students about adapting to university and the rigours of academic study. Further,
mentors involved in the program are available to assist the mentee to adapt to a new academic
environment and also offer a sense of being connected to the larger community of ACU.
The number of mentees has increased over the years due to a growing interest from
students who wish to participate as mentors and those new students who are encouraged to
enrol. In 2019, the program consisted of 150 mentees and 80 mentors, with only a minority of
first-year students not participating in the six-week program.
2.5 RESEARCHER’S EXPERIENCE
My teaching experience at ACU over the past 12 years has permitted considerable
engagement with thousands of first-year students. These students come from a range of
backgrounds: non-recent school leavers, recent school leavers, low SES backgrounds,
Indigenous and international students, with each bringing different experiences. I would argue
that, from my experience, many students who enter the Bachelor of Education (Primary) degree
are passionate about teaching and wish to successfully complete their four years at university
and join the teaching profession. With these students I have witnessed success both within the
university environment and in the teaching profession, while on practicum. These students tend
to immerse themselves in the offerings of the university: they attend all classes; access library
skills, academic skills, and sporting clubs; and often engage in professional practices with the
lecturers, such as conversations about assessment and university culture.
Notwithstanding the positive experiences of many, there are also some students who
accept admission into the Bachelor of Education (Primary) degree with low OPs or ATARs and
are not confident or prepared for the academic rigour that the university requires of them.
Consequently, I am concerned for these students who are not prepared academically to succeed
at university and all the consequences that are associated with it. One major drawback for
unsuccessful students is the HECS debt they will incur if they do not complete the degree. In
36 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
this case, they will have nothing to fall back on, due to them not receiving the marks necessary
to pass their course. In advancing this position, I am seeking knowledge in regard to what is
available to support these students and how the university acquires and applies strategies that
will support achievement, limit failure, and offset the negative and financial consequences
associated with early departure.
2.6 THE RESEARCH PROBLEM, PURPOSE AND QUESTION FOR THE STUDY
2.6.1 The research problem
The discussion in this chapter has highlighted that the OECD has a range of goals that all
member nations aspire to achieve. One of these is to create opportunities to increase the
proportion of each member nation’s population that is more highly educated so they can live
better and achieve more economically sophisticated lives. As a direct result of this goal, each
member nation is trying to advance the educational opportunities in their country by offering a
range of incentives to induce participation from the proportion of their population that has never
attended university or who are experiencing difficulties that limit attendance. Australia, as a
member of the OECD, is no different from other member nations as it works to meet the
challenges of increasing the percentage of Australians with a university degree. The initiatives
that the Australian Government has put in place to achieve the desired increase in participation
are the uncapping of university places and the provision of a number of forms of support, which
effectively allows all Australians to enter university if they desire. Of particular interest to this
study is the way that ACU has responded to the government’s call to increase university places.
This has been achieved through the creation of a number of pathways that give those who do not
meet the traditional requirements for entry an opportunity to enter a bachelor’s degree program.
Six of the seven campuses of ACU offer the Bachelor of Education (Primary) degree, a
program to prepare pre-service teachers for a career in teaching. The Brisbane campus of ACU
has many students enrolled in the Bachelor of Education (Primary) across each of the four years
Chapter 2: Identifying the Research Problem 37
of the program. Anecdotal evidence would suggest that as students’ progress they become
enculturated into university life and this leads to them being more inclined to be successful.
The first year of study is an important year, but the university has not conducted any research
of how first-year Bachelor of Education (Primary) students on the Brisbane campus are
experiencing university. Given that many students have come from circumstances that would
not previously have given them entry to university study, such as low SES, mature-age and
Indigenous students, the research problem to be addressed by this study is that while the
university provides a range of services to support first-year students, there is limited research
data on how students experience their first year enrolled in the Bachelor of Education (Primary)
degree at the Brisbane campus, Banyo. Without such research, it is not known if and to what
extent the services provided by the university for first-year students are adequate in their
breadth, are able to be accessed appropriately, and are supportive of the FYE.
2.6.2 The research purpose
The purpose of this study is to understand the way first-year Bachelor of Education
(Primary) students at ACU on the Brisbane campus experience and engage with supports
offered by the university and university life.
The clarity of this research purpose and problem provides the direction to the next stage
of this research, the review of the literature.
Chapter 3: Literature Review 39
Chapter 3: Literature Review
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this study is to understand the way first-year Bachelor of Education
(Primary) students at ACU on the Brisbane campus experience and engage with supports
offered by the university and university life. The purpose of Chapter 3 is to extend the
discussion of the grey literature presented in Chapter 2 to the research literature by providing a
review that will inform the generation of the research question. This literature review will draw
on the knowledge of peer-reviewed research in order to generate an appreciation of related
research so as to create new pathways and ideas in respect to the research question (Neuman,
2006).
The literature for this chapter was selected from searches of various databases. These
searches were initially performed using the Education Resources Information Centre (ERIC)
database, which provides 1.6 million bibliographic references for journal articles, books,
conference and policy papers, reports, and other education-related materials (Institute of
Education Sciences, 2019). The search terms used included but were not limited to the following:
first* year* (e.g., first-year students, first-year experience); engag* (e.g., engagement, engaging);
student engagement; teacher education; teacher development; higher education; college; tertiary
education; teach* (e.g., teachers, teaching, teacher); learn* (e.g., learn, learnt, learning); deep*
(e.g., deep learners); reflect* (e.g., reflective); mentor* (e.g., mentor program, mentoring). After
conducting these searches, further searches were undertaken using specialised databases, focused
on FYE and research into higher education in Australia, for example, Web of Science
(www.webofscience) and Scopus (www.elsevier.com/en-au/solutions/scopus).
The searches conducted were restricted to peer-reviewed research outputs produced in the
last 30 years and included the earliest Australian research to capture highly referenced authors
40 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
and seminal works. The literature reviewed led to the generation of three main themes: FYE
transition, What students bring to university, and University provisions for FYE students. These
themes are discussed in Sections 3.2 to 3.4 respectively, while in Section 3.5 the research
question is advanced as a result of considering what is known about FYE and the gaps in this
literature. The research question has been taken into the next chapter, Chapter 4, Design of the
Research, as this guides the design of the study.
3.2 FYE TRANSITION
During their first year of university life, students go through a process of transition,
understood as a “change navigated by students in their movement within and through their
formal [higher] education” (Gale & Parker, 2014, p. 735). Tinto (2020) provides an explanation
of transition as including social and academic experiences and the acculturation of students into
their new university space. Transition has also been described as a process of complexity and
challenge; one that invites responsibilities by universities through providing a range of support
strategies (Ecclestone, Biesta, & Hughes, 2010; Gast, 2013).
Multiple strategies are claimed to address the specific phases of transition (James, Krause,
& Jennings, 2009; Kift, Nelson, & Clarke, 2010; K. Nelson, Smith, & Clarke, 2012; Penn-
Edwards & Donnison, 2014). However, while there are multiple approaches available to assist
student transition, universities adopt those which appropriately respond to the “strategic
priorities of the university” (M. Christie, Penn-Edwards, Donnison, & Greenaway, 2018,
p. 128). These typically originate from institutional values (Donnison, Penn-Edwards,
Greenaway, & Horn, 2017) and aim to address the needs of the students they specifically enrol.
The discussion of these supports has evolved with experience and the supports have
subsequently been categorised as first, second, third, and fourth generation responses for FYE
students (M. Christie et al., 2018, p. 129). Table 3.1 provides a description of these four
Chapter 3: Literature Review 41
responses, each of which offers its own uniqueness and provides an evolving connection to
subsequent university-originated supports.
Table 3.1
Four Generations of FYE Support
Generation
Focus of support
First generation
Institutionally supported preparatory pathways or courses, the
provision of student services and co-curriculum activities.
Second generation
University wide, cross-curriculum support including administrative and
academic resources and support.
Third generation
Transition pedagogy which combines first and second-generation
approaches in an intentionally designed, pedagogically tested
curriculum with academic and professional support.
Fourth generation
Communities of supportive practice in and outside the university that
includes but also builds on first, second and third generation
approaches.
Note. FYE = first-year experience. Reprinted from “Selective Planning of the First Year Experience in
Higher Education: A Sweden-Australia Comparative Study of Support,” by M. Christie, S. Penn-
Edwards, S. Donnison, and R. Greenaway, 2018, International Journal of Higher Education, 7(2),
p. 129 (https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v7n2p128). Copyright 2018 by Sciedu Press.
Each generation of support offers strategic responses to transition and adapts with the
university appreciation of FYE. Alongside these four generational approaches is literature that
identifies three foundational approaches of the transition that occurs: transition as induction,
transition as becoming, and transition as development (Gale & Parker, 2014). These transition
phases when combined with notions of inter-generational responses provide a broad consensus
in the literature on FYE transition.
The first-generational approach promotes specifically related preparatory courses and
student services to assist first-year students, while the second generation focuses on the use of
“university wide, cross-curriculum support including administrative and academic resources”
(M. Christie et al., 2018, p. 129). The descriptions of these two generations align nicely with
“Transition as Induction” (Gale & Parker, 2014, p. 741). Indeed, the induction phase needs
42 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
extensive planning by the university (Hultberg, Plos, Hendry, & Kjellgren, 2009) and this phase
also invites students to adjust to the unique culture of the university. For many, their actual
experience of university life is very different from which they anticipate. Consequently, for
transition to be successful, students are required to direct themselves through existing programs
or systems, with support provided to assist such experiences (K. Nelson, 2014). These programs
introduce students to campus surrounds, to academic staff and support systems as well as to
their peers. These induction experiences also assist students to critically reconsider the
appropriateness of initial career decisions. Worthy of note is that induction experiences have
traditionally sought to provide information on the expectations the university has of students,
an introduction to academic teaching staff and where they are located (Hultberg et al., 2009).
Further, the overarching concept of integrating induction programs into the FYE is to provide
new students with a sense of stability in their new environment (Gale & Parker, 2014).
Given that there is pressure to increase student graduations by 2025 (Bradley et al., 2008)
and that students are entering university with lower admission scores (Baik et al., 2019), some
first-year students experience difficulties with bridging the gap from school or work to
university. These students may experience concern with academic responsibilities very early in
first semester (James et al., 2009; Kift, 2015). These challenges influence successful university
transition in the acquisition of skills necessary to succeed in study (McMillan, 2014). Put
differently, despite engaging with preparatory initiatives offered at university, students are not
adequately prepared for academic study (Ford et al., 2015). Moreover, some students are
challenged with balancing life, study, and work responsibilities and lack motivation at times
(Bovill, Bulley & Morss, 2011; McKay & Devlin, 2016). If these challenges are not addressed,
some students withdraw from university in the first year (Ford et al., 2015). More recent reports
indicate that in an effort to support students, programs should not be restricted to the initial days
at university; rather, they should be offered on an ongoing basis that involves commitment from
staff and students for the whole of first year (Douglas, Rogers, & Ahuja, 2018).
Chapter 3: Literature Review 43
The third-generation approach undertaken by universities favours university-wide
initiatives that include administrative, faculty and academic services (M. Christie et al., 2018).
Similarly, this phase of transition was identified by Gale and Parker as “Transition as
Becoming” (2014, p. 746). This also incorporates student success through the faculties and
academic support structures. It invites a transformation of teaching practices, curriculum and
values. Further, universities seek to celebrate and affirm students’ cultural capital (Gale &
Parker, 2014; Zepke & Leach, 2005). This approach is referred to as “transition pedagogy”
(Kift, 2015, p. 51), an effective student support strategy (M. Christie et al., 2018) that is
designed to focus on higher education as “being coherent, integrated, coordinated, intentional,
cumulative, interconnected and explicit” (Gale & Parker, 2014, p. 743). According to Gale and
Parker (2014), transition pedagogies emphasise the following:
•
creating collaborative and inclusive spaces, in which students are
encouraged to share their beliefs, knowledge and experiences;
•
developing student-centred strategies, which entail flexible and tailored
activities that enable students to ground their learning in something
relevant to them as individuals;
•
connecting with students’ lives, through subject matter that is relevant to
students’ immediate lives and/or their imagined roles and identities as
professionals;
•
being culturally aware, which includes using culturally relevant examples,
anecdotes and stories to aid learning, as well as a non-academic frame of
reference for teaching (i.e. teaching beyond the academic culture). (p. 748)
While the university implements transition phases, students are also expected to be responsible
for their attendance, engagement, motivation and participation once university commences
(Kift, Nelson, & Clarke, 2010; Tinto, 2015).
44 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
The fourth-generational approach stands in clear contrast to the other three as it has its
genesis within the wider community and consequently is characterised by the honouring of
cultural and social capital (Penn-Edwards & Donnison, 2014). Cultural capital respects diverse
knowledge and different understandings of phenomena and corresponding behaviours
(Donnison et al., 2017), whereas social capital refers to the connections students make, both
individually and socially in networks they establish on campus. Consequently, the fourth-
generation approach celebrates the “role that the FY student’s social capital plays in their
successful transition into higher education” (Donnison et al., 2017, p. 64). Noticeably, with the
fourth-generational approach there is an awareness of outside influences that assist with
transition, which can be directly linked to what has been termed “Transition as Development”
(Gale & Parker, 2014, p. 746). They include family, peers, children and partners, context, time
and place (M. Christie et al., 2018; K. Nelson et al., 2012) and contribute to the development
of a “community of practice” or learning communities that specifically support student
engagement and transition based on student needs (Penn-Edwards & Donnison, 2014, p. 32;
Reaburn & McDonald, 2016).
This fourth-generational phase provides a focus on “students’ transformation or
development from one life stage to another” (Gale & Parker, 2014, p. 741). In comparison to
transition as induction, it is aligned to the first-generational approach where transition occurs
along pathways designed by the university that necessitate substantial time to negotiate. During
this time, students learn how to study, how to become independent learners and how to navigate
their individual disciplines. It has been claimed that universities support students to transit
through this phase by providing supportive curricula, assessment and pedagogical approaches
(Kift et al., 2010).
A means for conceptualising student knowledge and difference is to appreciate who
students are at university and how they “identify themselves” (Gale, 2012, p. 251) and come to
understand their “funds of knowledge” (Esteban-Guitart & Moll, 2014, p. 31). Funds of
Chapter 3: Literature Review 45
knowledge refer to what students know and what they bring to their university experience. Not
only is this aspect important for students, so is understanding their own learning styles and
preferences in order to support their learning. This is for both university teachers and students
alike. There is a myriad of learning styles, all of which are influential in learning and academic
achievement which play a part in how students learn (Yazici, 2006). One such example of
learning styles is Kolb’s Experiential learning theory (Kolb, 1984) which provides a guide to
producing valuable, deeper and meaningful ideas in pre-service teachers. Kolb’s theory has
been identified as offering an alternative to traditional classroom approaches, as it provides for
personal change and development in terms of a learning cycle (Bergsteiner, Avery & Neumann,
2010). It has also been documented to assist learning in critical reflection and emphasizes a
four-stage cycle and a four-type definition of learning styles each representing a combination
of two preferred styles for a combination of the cycle and the styles. These are referred to as:
• Concrete experiences (CE)-a level of personal involvement;
• Reflective observation (RO)-reviewing what has been experienced;
• Abstract conceptualization (AC)-students relate knowledge gained from outside
experiences;
• Active experimentation (AE)-students test out learned information and the cycle
begins again (Groves, Bowd & Smith, 2010, p.12-13).
Kolb’s learning cycle provides one of the most useful descriptive models of adult learning
processes. Kolb’s theory posits that learning is a cognitive process involving constant
adaptation to, and engagement with one’s environment. Here it is argued that individuals create
knowledge from experience rather than just from received instruction. Conflicts, disagreements
and differences drive the learning process as learners move between modes of action, reflection,
feeling and thinking. Different learning styles reflect learning preferences that can change with
the situation. Learning is therefore a holistic process and results from synergetic interactions
with the environment, with people making choices about which parts of the environment to
engage with (Bergsteiner, Avery & Neumann, 2010).
46 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
Further to this, individuals create themselves through the choices they make, and these
choices have a direct influence on future actions. Experiential learning tasks can also be used
to facilitate the development of study skills, as they have been viewed as “aiding student
learning and the acquisition of skills” (Groves, Bowd & Smith, 2010, p.11).
The reflective learner describes a factor that acknowledges the influence of previous
academic experience and an assessment of academic readiness on an adult’s decision to enrol
in higher education (Stein & Wanstreet, 2006). It is evident that individuals learn better when
they are actively engaged with class activities and the information being presented (Krause,
2005; Coates, 2010; Reason, Terenzini & Domingo, 2006). Students must engage in deep
learning if they are to develop and become critical thinkers in their own learning. To facilitate
deep learning and student engagement, it is proposed that at the beginning of the lecture and
the activities employed are crucial for such learning. If there is limited engagement with
practical details at this time, then retention of lecture material is also limited (Krause, 2005).
Through the promotion and development of engaging teaching practices we can create
learning environments in which deep learning can occur, high quality student learning is
promoted, and superficial approaches to learning are discouraged.
Even though there are many and varied initiatives in support of transition, it is the
responsibility of the higher education system to include knowledge systems and practices that
are more flexible and open to meeting students’ needs throughout their first year of university
(M. Christie et al., 2018; Gale & Parker, 2014). In light of this the discussion continues with a
focus on what students bring to university, followed by specific approaches used by universities
to support students through these phases.
3.3 WHAT STUDENTS BRING TO UNIVERSITY
Historically, students entering university were young, full-time and from an Anglo-Saxon
heritage (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005); however, this profile of first-year students has changed
Chapter 3: Literature Review 47
to now encompass a “mix of distinct generations of learners with different histories,
preferences, and values” (Holyoke & Larson, 2009, p. 12). In addition, each student brings
unique past learnings and academic experiences to their first year at university (Gibney, Moore,
Murphy, & O’Sullivan, 2011; Kasworm, 2018). Further, they bring with them a student identity
that is “multi-layered, multi-sourced and evolving” (Kasworm, 2010, p. 143) and that over time
will transform them into the student they will become (Wilson, Devereux, & Tranter, 2015).
Nevertheless, while students overall are now more diverse and each possesses particular
attributes, they all share common challenges: to successfully engage with university life and
studies (Brinkworth, McCann, Matthews, & Nordström, 2009) and adjusting to their
surroundings and forming new friendships (Buote, et al., 2007). It is the importance of these
new friendships that often assist with the adjustment of their new social university environment.
3.3.1 First-year student characteristics
Students enter university with various characteristics (Elkins, Braxton, & James, 2000;
Kasworm, 2018) such as gender, race, academic ability, family background, educational levels
of parents, plus different levels of commitment to the university they attend (Tinto, 1988).
Research on the characteristics of first-year students advances that there are two specific cohorts
of students who choose teacher education as a career. These are recent school leavers (Baik,
Naylor, & Arkoudis, 2015) and non-recent school leavers (Heagney & Benson, 2017) or career
switchers
4
(Richardson & Watt, 2016). Therefore, these terms have been used interchangeably
by researchers depending on their context. Recent school leavers are those who access
university immediately upon completion of secondary school (Baik et al., 2015), while career
switchers encompass all those students who are not graduating directly from school (Richardson
& Watt, 2016). The terms recent and non-recent school leavers will however be used within the
Presentation of Findings chapter, Chapter 5.
4
This group of students has also been termed “mature age” (Heagney & Benson, 2017, p. 226) and “career
changer” (Bauer, Thomas, & Sim, 2017, p. 185).
48 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
The career switcher has been characterised as professional and mature; committed to
their studies and a teaching career; understanding themselves, particularly in their previous
career; and having interpersonal and intrapersonal skills relevant for a career in teaching
(Richardson & Watt, 2016). These career switchers traditionally identify with one of six
profiles: “the parent; the successful careerist; the freelancer; the late starter; the serial careerist;
and the young career changer” (Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003, p. 98). Career switchers
are generally aged between 21 and 35 years (Harvey et al., 2016) and make up approximately
40% of the Australian student cohort. Further, there has been an ongoing increase in the number
of career switchers beyond 35 years of age (Harvey et al., 2016; O’Shea, Stone, & May, 2014).
Past research has reported that there is an increasing trend for career switchers to enter teaching,
with many of these students having been dissatisfied with their previous occupation and
believing that teaching offers a rewarding future with meaningful work (Anthony & Ord, 2008;
Wilson & Deaney, 2010).
While there are clear profile differences between recent school leavers and career
switchers, there are common factors that influence each group to become teachers. These
include the desire to work with young children; personal satisfaction; the desire to improve the
quality of future education; and parental and teacher influences, along with vocational interests
(Henoch Roloff, Klusmann, Lüdtke, & Trautwein, 2015; Mukminin, Kamil, Muazza, &
Haryanto, 2017; Richardson & Watt, 2016). These findings are not new and are well established
in the research literature (Anthony & Ord, 2008).
Drawing on more general research of first-year students at university, it has been
documented in past research that “the characteristics, motivations and outcomes of mature-age
students differ from those of younger students” (Chesters & Watson, 2014, p. 1638). The
differences have been identified as students who were less likely to have graduated from high
school, may not have a university-educated parent and have their own children. These
differences require mature-age students to change their lives in order to fit university studies
Chapter 3: Literature Review 49
into their already existing commitments (Heagney & Benson, 2017). However, balancing a
variety of commitments for all students is real (Tetteh & Attiogbe, 2019). Research by Tetteh
and Attiogbe (2019) explored how university students who worked were able to combine this
with their study and whether working affected their academic performance. A survey was
distributed to 360 students who worked while studying. They were randomly selected from four
universities across Ghana. The study employed the “Pearson product-moment correlation
coefficient (r 2) to establish the relationship between the variables considered in the
hypotheses” (Tetteh & Attiogbe, 2019, p. 531). The results confirmed that combining university
study with work does negatively affect academic performance. It was identified that students
found it difficult to allocate sufficient time for study due to the requirements of their work.
Even though it is known that working affects study outcomes, research confirms that there
is an increase in students who work part-time and many who work full-time (Hall, 2010;
Holmes, 2008; Salamonson, Everett, Koch, Andrew, & Davidson., 2012). Holmes (2008)
researched why students worked during their degree, the influences of their choice of work, and
students’ perception of how to balance work and study. Holmes distributed a survey to 42 first-
and second-year students at the end of the second semester. It was reported that 83% of students
worked at some point while they were studying. The research identified that the majority of
students who worked needed to pay for the basic costs of living. Further, while 53% of students
believed they could balance work and study, 30% who responded to the survey felt that they
experienced a negative impact on their degree while they worked (Holmes, 2008). While these
studies discussed the negative effects working has on students’ commitments and the balance
of work and study, Hall’s (2010) research also found that students believed universities should
cater more for “the needs of working students by providing more online facilities for assignment
submission and communication and more flexible timetables and submission requirements”
(p. 439). Worthy of note is that it is well established that balancing work and study does not
50 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
always result in an equal balance; it can vary over time depending on the individual and there
is no one-size-fits-all for different cohorts (Bird, 2006).
Regardless of what cohort first-year students identify with, the commonality of their
motivations, or whether they work part-time or full-time, first-year students are often
underprepared to succeed at university (Dunbar & O’Connor, 2016). It is well established that
some students often experience a “serious lack of institutional fit ... are disengaged,
unmotivated and expect instant gratification” (Barefoot, 2000, p. 13). This situation has not
changed, with a more recent study by Baik et al. (2015) reporting that current first-year students
“were less socially engaged in the university community, spent less time on campus, and more
students tended to keep to themselves” (p. 1). For approximately 30% of the students in the
study, “getting motivated and coping with university study remains challenging” (Baik et al.,
2015, p. 1). As well, 30% are at risk of not completing their first year (Mason & Matas, 2015);
therefore, it is important to encourage persistence (Ross-Gordan, Rose, & Kasworm, 2016).
The phenomenon of first-year lack of engagement and early termination is argued to be
exacerbated by the impact of increasing class size on learning; decreasing student engagement,
with students having other priorities (Baik et al., 2019); establishing a study–life balance
(Coates, 2014; Habermas, 1984); reduced university community connections (Baik et al.,
2019); forming and developing new friendships (Buote et al., 2007) and widening diversity in
student demographics (Kasworm. 2018).
Within the Australian context, Richardson and Watt (2006) explored student choice in
teaching and established a “Factors Influencing Teaching Choice” (FIT-Choice) framework
(p. 31) to elucidate the complexity underlying student engagement. The framework focused on
altruistic-type motivations as well as personal and intrinsic motivations. It enunciated
“
‘socialization influences’, followed by more proximal influences of ‘task perceptions’, ‘self
perceptions’, ‘values’, and ‘fallback career’
” (Richardson & Watt, 2006, p. 32).
Chapter 3: Literature Review 51
The framework was further developed into a quantitative survey scale and applied in the
wider contexts of the USA, Germany and Norway (Watt et al., 2012). Results proved to be
similar in these countries and reinforced its application, potential and suitability within
Australia (Watt et al., 2012). International contrasts revealed that motivations for teaching were
similar; however, a concern was identified that “perceptions about the teaching profession
reflected country differences”, for example, the differences in salary rewards (Watt et al., 2012,
p. 791). Despite acknowledging that teaching is a demanding career, teaching offers minimal
rewards in terms of social status and income, yet Australians were found to be passionate about
continuing their study at university (Richardson & Watt, 2016), and positive links existed
between status and the attractiveness of entering teacher education (Darling-Hammond, 2017).
3.3.2 Student engagement in higher education
Student engagement in higher education has been well researched (Krause, 2017; Xerri,
Radford & Shacklock, 2018; Zepke, 2018), with participation at university and engagement in
learning being pivotal to academic success (Masters & Donnison, 2010; Ramsden & Callender,
2014). However, because “engagement is influenced by a wide range of factors it is therefore
experienced differently by different cohorts and in different contexts” (Kahu & Lodge, 2018,
p. i).
In the past, student engagement has been identified as a myriad of differing ideologies
relating to policy, learning, teaching, enhancement and improvement (Kuh, 2009; Reschly &
Christenson, 2012; Trowler, 2010); however, engagement is complex and not easy to define
(Ramsden & Callender, 2014). For instance, while there are differences in the research literature
regarding the meaning of student engagement and retention (Tight, 2019), some of these
definitions obscure the full understanding of engagement (Pittaway & Moss, 2019). One simple
and practical definition refers to engagement as constituted by “how engrossed or attentive
students seem to be in their learning or how integrated they are with their classes, colleagues
and colleges” (Caruth, 2018, p. 17). Further, past research confirms that the more students are
52 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
engaged in their learning environments, the more likely they are to become successful students
at university (O’Donnell & Tobbell, 2007).
The link between effective engagement and student learning is clear. The ACER (2010)
confirms that involving students with activities is likely to generate high-quality learning.
Moreover, if learning and engagement are to be activated successfully, then thoughtful,
engaging high-quality strategies and activities in the higher education classroom must be
instigated by the teacher, and students are encouraged to be enthusiastic and demonstrate the
required “effort necessary to develop their skills and knowledge” (Axelson & Flick, 2011, p.
7). Alternatively, if high-quality activities do not occur then students might fluctuate between
being engaged and disengaged in their learning (Bryson & Hand, 2007).
Similar to the ACER’s (2010) findings, student engagement is a shared responsibility
between students and teachers (Axelson & Flick, 2011). Teachers are called to design and
implement engaging activities and arrange the university classroom environment, and students
are called to participate meaningfully (ACER, 2010). In addition, and in view of wider
organisational implications, Tight (2019) advanced that student engagement has moved from
being the responsibility of the student to that of the higher education institution.
Different understandings of student engagement exist within the USA, Europe, the United
Kingdom (Solomonides, Reid, & Petocz, 2012) and Australia (Xerri et al., 2018). In the USA,
one of the most widely used and validated frameworks is the National Survey of Student
Engagement (NSSE, 2005; Pascarella, Seifert, & Blaich, 2010). This survey was designed to
measure the extent to which university students are engaged in good practices in undergraduate
education (Pascarella et al., 2010). It was redeveloped in 2016 (Zhoc, Webster, King, Li, &
Chung, 2018). Further, several key iterations of the NSSE have been used to understand student
academic challenges, student learning, peer relationships, experiences with faculty, and the
campus environment. The overarching concept is that the more time students spend participating
in good practices, the more a student’s cognitive and social development will be influenced by
Chapter 3: Literature Review 53
their education (Pascarella et al., 2010). The NSSE to date is now widely integrated into higher
education practices and polices (Gonyea & Shoup, 2018), similar to the Australasian Survey of
Student Engagement (AUSSE; Brown, 2018; Coates, 2010).
The AUSSE parallel of the NSSE (Zhoc et al., 2018) aims to offer a practical lens for
assessing and responding to the significant dynamics, constraints and opportunities facing
higher education institutions, along with “encouraging the expansion of evidence-based quality
management in higher education” (Coates, 2010, p. 1).
This AUSSE has become the preferred instrument for surveying student needs and is
administered across many universities in Australasia (Coates, 2010). In the past, findings from
survey data on student participation and success reported on the quality of the education offered,
gave ideas on how to enhance activities, and identified good practices within universities
(Coates, 2010). A recent study using the NSSE and AUSSE made comparisons between
disciplines and institutions with the outcome being improvements in both areas (Leach, 2016).
The research pointed to the value of survey instruments in providing relevant data in terms of
positive higher education performance.
Research has capitalised on engagement surveys and developed theoretical frameworks to
conceptualise the dimensions and complexity of student engagement (Kahu & Nelson, 2017;
Kuh, 2007; Pittaway, 2012). An original theoretical “framework of student engagement” by Kahu
(2013, p. 766) acknowledges the student is at the centre of university engagement with the
variables of affect, cognition, and behaviour being important (Kahu, 2013). As such, student
engagement incorporates four perspectives: behavioural, psychological, socio-cultural, and
holistic (Kahu, 2013), with these perspectives focusing on how students’ (and teacher) behaviours
and success link together. Affect focuses on enthusiasm and interest in the topic and a sense of
belonging to the university. Cognition identifies whether students formulate deep learning and
are self-regulated within their learning. Behaviour constitutes the time and effort students put into
their study, the interaction they have with peers and staff, along with participation within the
54 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
university structure. Sociocultural influences are identified as characteristics of the student and
the institution. Further, an appropriate way to envisage engagement is the way that it
“acknowledges the lived reality of the individual” (Kahu, 2013, p. 766).
The framework includes engagement with the structural and administrative influences of
the university and the student. These influences include culture, policies, curriculum,
assessment, and discipline. Student influences reflect background, support, family, and life
load. The psychosocial influences of the framework depict the relationships between the
university and students and record the position that we cannot do it alone (Kahu, 2013). The
proximal consequences of student engagement are separated into “academic, learning and
achievement, and social, satisfaction and well-being” (Kahu, 2013, p. 767).
The distal consequences include academic, retention, work success and life-long learning
but also the social impacts that could lead to the future of students’ decision-making. Importantly,
the framework identifies that it is necessary to understand that engagement is not driven by just
one influence but is more of a constant connection between them all (Kahu, 2013).
Critique of the Kahu (2013) framework identifies that it does not highlight the factors that
impact and interact with “psychosocial mechanisms” (Kahu & Nelson, 2017, p. 59) that
influence the success of a university student. It lacks the provision that focuses on how to
“design and implement curricula and co-curricular initiatives that can enhance student success
and retention” (Kahu & Nelson, 2017, p. 59). Kahu and Nelson (2017) make significant
contributions to research on engagement and ascertain that students’ engagement is influenced
through the interactions and partnerships they have with peers and the institution itself. This
aligns with Matthews (2019), whose research underpins the concept of engaging students as
partners in order to shape their higher education experience.
Extending these findings, a recent Australian research study identified student
engagement as a “critical factor contributing to the overall success of students studying in
higher education institutions” (Xerri et al., 2018, p. 589). This research surveyed 209 first-year
Chapter 3: Literature Review 55
undergraduate students to address the gap in research into what influences student
connectedness. Invitations were electronically sent to an original cohort of 712 students, with
29.5% responding. The results propose that “student-student (peer) relationships, teacher-
student relationships, and students’ sense of purpose for studying a higher education degree,
were central to student engagement in academic activities” (Xerri et al., 2018, p. 589). Previous
research identified similar findings and summarises the ongoing phenomenon:
Traditionally, high quality implies recognizing that students must be engaged with
the content of learning tasks in a way that is likely to enable them to reach
understanding. … Sharp engagement, imaginative inquiry and the finding of a
suitable level and style are all more likely to occur if teaching methods that
necessitate student energy, problem solving, and cooperative learning are
employed. (Ramsden, 2003, p. 97)
A second theoretical framework that informs our understanding of first-year engagement
and process of support is offered by Pittaway (2012). This theoretical framework consists of
five elements: personal, social, academic, professional, and intellectual. Her theoretical
framework can be applied to any university year level, discipline or course, and it was initially
developed to enhance “support for students across all courses, year groups and modes of
delivery” (Pittaway, 2012, p. 40). All the elements can be used by academics who are writing
and developing their units and considering their teaching practices. The elements can also be
used by students who decide on what, when and how they will engage in their university work.
Professional staff can use the theoretical framework in designing materials to support
“marketing, recruitment, orientation, induction, transition and student support initiatives”
(Pittaway, 2012, p. 40). Research reviewed by Kahu and Lodge (2018) also reports on the
significance of involving professional staff to assist in supporting students through the process
of university enrolment.
56 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
While recognising the breadth of application of Pittaway’s initial theoretical framework,
it gives limited importance to the construct of social engagement and the phenomenon of
interaction in the first year. This is because at the time of the 2012 research, the social
engagement construct was not fully developed; however, further research by Pittaway and Moss
(2019) progressed the original theoretical framework and included the significance of social
development, specifically in the online teaching space. Even though all of the original elements
of the theoretical framework are important, recent research highlights that social engagement
aligns best with participation at university (Pittaway & Moss, 2019). Moreover, social
engagement highlights “students’ interactions with their peers and university staff in both
formal and informal contexts and is often suggested to be central to students’ success” (Pittaway
& Moss, 2019, p. 7). Within the context of their study, Pittaway and Moss (2019) adopted a
case study approach and identified one first-year student who was enrolled online. The study
focused on the underlying ideals and the need for social interaction for student success and
engagement. This is confirmed by Redmond, Abawi, Brown, Henderson, and Heffernan (2018).
Previous research also confirmed that if social interaction and contact is lacking, then students
may feel a sense of alienation with their lecturers (Mann, 2005).
In traditional face-to-face higher education classrooms one factor that may contribute to
feeling alienated is the “assumption that participants make about what is or is not appropriate
or significant in the different learning environments. For example, the assumption about being
a good student or not understanding the experiences of each other” (Mann, 2005, p. 44). These
can lead to restraints for both teachers and students and to lack of engagement in the academic
learning process. Alleviation of these outcomes can be offset by staff in and out of class through
experiences of hospitality, safety, sharing power, and encouraging criticality (Mann, 2005).
The importance of profiling student engagement constitutes a starting point to support
students in their first year at university. However, awareness of difference and connection alone
is insufficient to overall student retention and success. Also critical to these goals are the
Chapter 3: Literature Review 57
strategies universities offer to address difference and to build connections within the wider
university community.
3.4 UNIVERSITY PROVISIONS FOR FYE STUDENTS
Within the review of university support strategies, the value of orientation programs is
highlighted, specifically as to how they can be implemented for first-year students (McPhail,
French, & Wilson, 2015). Further, the literature identifies ongoing supports such as mentoring
programs, academic support services (Larkin, Rowan, Garrick, & Beavis, 2016), and
assessment feedback. Moreover, how initial teacher education (ITE) exists within the context
of the broader university, including the culture of the university; blended and online learning;
and Surface, Deep, and Achieving approaches to learning are included in this review of
university provisions for first-year students.
3.4.1 Orientation programs
Orientation programs continue to be an important part of the FYE at university and have
been recognised by past research (Braxton & McClendon, 2001). Prior to classes commencing,
students are encouraged to attend orientation activities. The aim is to develop a sense of
“affiliation with their institution and their course and staff” (Baik et al., 2015, p. 30). It is at this
point that students are preparing to engage with their university surroundings. Further,
orientation aims to raise students’ awareness about the expectations and standards set by the
university and the kind of academic skills students need to perform well at university.
Notwithstanding, orientation activities remain as an under-researched aspect of engagement and
retention (McPhail et al., 2015).
Most Australian universities have some form of orientation programs that are designed to
assist students’ transition to the university environment and culture (McPhail et al., 2015). The
overarching concept behind orientation is to welcome new students and to provide them with
the opportunity to view university as their new learning environment. Orientation is planned
58 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
for the students by the university staff to introduce them to their degree and to showcase support
that is offered on an ongoing basis. This support requires a commitment from both staff and
students with the intention being to create an atmosphere of open communication and to guide
students in making an easy transition into university life (Kift, 2015).
When examining orientation programs, McPhail et al. (2015) went beyond listing
supports typically associated with university strategies to outlining specific improvements of
the orientation program for first-year students to assist them in preparing for the reality of
academic study. To move beyond this usual approach, the study developed and implemented
the “Commencing Student-Needs-Centred Orientation Framework” (McPhail et al., 2015,
p. 109). In this instance the orientation program comprised a one-day program that developed
the insights of Lizzio (2006). The goal was to identify the “big picture” (McPhail et al., 2015,
p. 109) for students and “systematically work through the five senses of student success”
believed to provide very specific information needed for the early weeks of first semester
(McPhail et al., 2015, p. 117). The five senses of success provided a platform for designing
effective and efficient orientation strategies that may assist students in first year (Lizzio, 2006).
These are described as sense of connectedness; sense of capacity; sense of purpose; sense of
resourcefulness; and sense of academic culture (McPhail et al., 2015). Further, they link back
to earlier research (Lizzio, 2006) by providing a description of the academic, personal and social
transition processes, which are all connected as they inform practice in understanding how the
student and university staff operate (McPhail et al., 2015). The one-day program was built on
the five senses, whereby students were invited to five sessions that related specifically to their
experiences. These sessions were developed after the original orientation program was
implemented. Feedback informed program improvement, which was implemented in semesters
A, B and C. According to McPhail et al. (2015), the aims of the program were as follows:
•
collect and analyse baseline data from students on their current experience
of their orientation day programme, including suggestions for improvement;
Chapter 3: Literature Review 59
•
use both the student data and the Five Senses Model of Student Transition
to re-design a transition-sensitive orientation day programme;
•
trial and evaluate the revised programme; and
•
implement and evaluate the revised programme with a second independent
commencing student cohort in a subsequent semester. (p. 114)
The research of McPhail et al. (2015) entailed survey and focus group interviews with 385
commencing students over a period of three semesters. The breakdown of enrolled students was
as follows: 164 commencing students in the original orientation program in Semester A; 44 new
cohort of students participating in the revised orientation program trial in Semester B; and a final
new cohort of 177 students participating in the full implementation of the revised orientation
program in Semester C (McPhail et al., 2015). The participants were mainly recent school leavers
studying full-time and were first in their family to attend university (McPhail et al., 2015).
The first part of the study undertaken in Semester A required the participants to complete a
short survey on the same day as the program. Students were asked to rate their satisfaction with
the orientation day program relating to the five sessions and the extent to which the sessions
prepared them for university life and becoming a student. The results indicated that 81.4% of the
participants believed that the orientation day was effective in preparing them for university
(McPhail et al., 2015). Further, in Semester B, a survey was offered to all commencing students
with the expectation being that they complete it between weeks 4 and 7 of their semester of study.
These participants were asked to evaluate their experience of orientation, combined with the
learning environment in which they were immersed and whether orientation prepared them for
their academic study (McPhail et al., 2015). Students reported that they had the “right amount of
information” but during the weeks identified, they knew that they needed more academic
assistance (McPhail et al., 2015, p. 116). In contrast to the first set of survey results in Semester
A, the results were far less favourable in terms of the program assisting them with the realities of
60 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
academic life and study. Only 32% (164 participants) responded to the survey, with only 37.8%
of these agreeing that they were prepared (McPhail et al., 2015).
Following the collection of survey data, the researchers then focused on reflection and
action in order to improve the orientation day program. A working party was established to
investigate the reasons between the differences identified and how revising and redesigning
may improve the program (McPhail et al., 2015). Enrolled students in Semester C were then
invited to undertake the second iteration of the revised orientation program. The results from
this cohort identified that the revised program offered substantial improvements in the students’
perceptions of orientation day and how it assisted them both socially and academically
(McPhail et al., 2015). Not all strategies were reported to be equally effective, but the overall
findings drawn from the three semesters showed strong improvements in student perceptions
of the student-centred aspects of the program and their influence on preparation for university
study (McPhail et al., 2015).
The findings of McPhail et al. (2015) on building student awareness of their self and
purpose contrast with the approach of Douglas, Rogers, and Ahuja (2018), which focused on a
transition initiative that was embedded into the first year of study for cohorts of students
between 2009 and 2012. This research identified that one-day orientation programs are
unsatisfactory and should extend across the course of the first year after induction. The program
they developed in conjunction with this idea was called “The Student Challenge” (Douglas et
al., 2018, p. 70), a strategy that included ongoing support on campus through a series of fun and
educational activities conducted throughout the year. These entailed opportunities to share
meals, participate in social functions, socialise with students from other year levels, participate
in sports competitions, and access online resources to assist with the yearlong challenge
(Douglas et al., 2018). These strategies were identified as assisting the students in developing
a “sense of belonging” (Douglas et al., 2018, p. 79) and providing regular information about
support, culture and peer networks. Of the 445 students who were invited to participate in the
Chapter 3: Literature Review 61
research, there was a mix of age, gender, domestic and international backgrounds. Data were
collected from a voluntary paper-based survey with a response rate of 50% (Douglas et al.,
2018). This aligns with the fourth generation (M. Christie et al., 2018) and sense of belonging
research (Penn-Edwards & Donnison, 2014; Tinto, 2017). Results of the Douglas et al. (2018)
study extended McPhail et al. (2015) by recommending that orientation should entail a
continuous process throughout the whole year as it offers the skills and knowledge required to
transition into second year. Further, the socially oriented experiences engaged peer support and
security through the implementation of social, fun and educational activities all year long
(Douglas et al., 2018).
The findings of these two comprehensive approaches to orientation, Mc Phail et al. (2015)
and Douglas et al. (2018), reveal the success of different strategies to support first-year students
and are similar in that they highlight the importance of orientation as a continuing process which
engages personal and social dimensions, as opposed to programs that are on offer for one day
only. However, such programs are indirect in their relationship with overall learning support
and are often applied alongside support strategies of a more direct nature, such as mentoring,
academic support services, and assessment and feedback, which have been presented in the
recent research literature and have been argued to support students across their first year of
university study. These will be discussed in the following section.
3.4.2 Ongoing supports the university provides throughout a student’s first year
Australian universities are investing time and money to improve the quality of the FYE
by offering academic support sessions throughout the year (Larkin et al., 2016) that are not
specifically linked to orientation itself. These support sessions extend the existing university
programs that are offered within regular, timetabled classes (Larkin et al., 2016). Universities
have accepted responsibility for understanding the student and their individual needs by
addressing challenges before they arise through providing learning opportunities during their
FYE. Consequently, programs are deliberately planned to enhance skills and knowledge and to
62 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
develop a culture of learning that supports students to successfully complete their degree (Baik
et al., 2015; Kift, 2008). As a result, university experience is complex and broad, with students
having individualised experiences (Blair, 2017; Larkin et al., 2016). These experiences are
viewed in the literature as “communities of practice”. Discussed in this section are the support
programs that have been identified in the literature.
Mentoring programs
Mentoring programs involve mentors who are experienced peers, and first-year students
who are mentees or the protégé (younger peer) who is being mentored (H. Christie, 2014;
Heirdsfield, Walker, Walsh, & Wilss, 2008). A relationship normally develops between
mentors and mentees and offers those students involved an opportunity to reflect on how they
learn in higher education and how they may apply this to their interactions with their peers.
This relationship is particularly beneficial in pre-service teacher education programs where
students are working towards a career in education (Heirdsfield et al., 2008). Mentoring has
become well known in higher education “as a way of enhancing the personal and professional
development of the student”, as well as supporting a smooth transition into university” (H.
Christie, 2014, p. 955).
Although there is no clearly accepted definition of peer mentoring, it has previously been
defined as “hierarchical relationships positioning the participants differently” (Le Cornu, 2005,
p. 358). More recently, it has been defined as a “dyadic, hierarchical relationship between a
more experienced person and an inexperienced person in a specific field” (Lim, MacLeod,
Tkacik, & Dika, 2017, p. 396). However, when mentors engage in processes of co-learning this
notion is challenged. The idea of co-mentors or co-learners redirects the hierarchy of
relationships. Students are working together as co-constructors of knowledge (Le Cornu, 2005).
As a result, mentoring is generally seen as an incentive program that supports students to be
successful learners by integrating them into the learning community and offering support where
necessary (H. Christie, 2014; Heirdsfield et al., 2008; Lim et al., 2017). More recently,
Chapter 3: Literature Review 63
mentoring has been identified as a way to mitigate against the attrition rate of first-year students
and to strengthen student engagement (Cooper, 2018). In addition, the provision of student
mentors assists first-year students to become more independent managers of themselves
(Cooper, 2018; Haber-Curran, Everman, & Martinez, 2017). To reach this end goal, the Trident
peer mentor program was developed by Cooper (2018) and included three parts. These
integrated a “Study Space”, which is a voluntary, standalone space for students to attend outside
of classes; “Peer Assisted Tutorial” sessions (PATs) to assist first-year students; and an “Online
Study Space” (p. 90). Student and volunteer mentors reported that by including multiple options
in the Trident program catered for different preferences for learning and offered multiple
pathways for such learning (Cooper, 2018).
Supporting a holistic approach to mentoring, the “undergraduate peer mentor (UPM)
program” (Douglass, Smith, & Smith, 2013, p. 223) was designed to determine the traits of a
good mentor from the perspective of both mentors and mentees who were enrolled in intensive
writing courses and to ascertain how mentoring activities assisted them through the duration of
the writing course. Thirteen mentors, mostly female, were selected for the program after having
been recommended by their teachers as suitable mentors. The high rate of female participation
is not surprising given that H. Christie’s (2014) research also confirmed that females
predominantly volunteered across many mentoring programs. Further, the undergraduate peer
mentor program also included a prerequisite for participation where mentors had to demonstrate
a proficiency in academic writing (Douglass et al., 2013). Similarly, in research by Cooper
(2018), the Trident peer mentor program required mentors to be selected through a thorough
recruitment and training program and be high-achieving students who exhibit very strong
interpersonal skills. This element of these programs also aligns with H. Christie’s (2014)
research whereby they too were also trained to participate in the program. Further, to ensure
mentors were adequately prepared, they were required to undertake paid training, attend
64 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
monthly meetings, assist in class, attend office hours and assist students with writing assessment
pieces (Douglass et al., 2013).
In the study by Douglass et al. (2013), the participating students completed three surveys.
Survey results suggested that the mentors were well trained and that many students preferred to
discuss issues with their mentors rather than their teachers (Douglass et al., 2013). These results
support previous findings by Heirdsfield et al. (2008) whereby first-year students may be
“reluctant to approach or question academic staff and have difficulty in relating to them”
(p. 112). Douglass et al. (2013) also reported that mentor and mentee relationships might be
improved if they are matched with a peer who has similar personal interests. Beyond the benefit
of similar interests, several of the mentors admitted to thinking and behaving like a teacher,
which also required them to offer feedback to their mentees.
There were differences and similarities in what mentors and mentees considered to be
relevant and important abilities of a peer mentor (Douglass et al., 2013). Mentees indicated that
knowledge in the field of writing was an important characteristic of the mentor, along with the
mentor’s having previously undertaken the writing course in which they were assisting. The
credibility of the mentor, as judged on knowledge mentors shared with their mentees, was
deemed valuable. A difference between some participants’ responses was their preference
regarding the level of prior mentoring experience. In some instances, experience was not
considered a necessary means for being a successful mentor. This may link to prior research
where it was reported that support, trustworthiness and good communication skills were
important factors (H. Christie, 2014). The provision of time was also seen as important with
mentor availability considered crucial to the mentees (Douglass et al., 2013). Mentees wished
there was more time to meet their mentors and suggested improvements in the program, perhaps
in the way of more office hours, as many were unable to attend meetings during office hours
due to timetable clashes and their own work commitments (Douglass et al., 2013). Nonetheless,
research has confirmed that peer mentoring programs assist with forming relationships and
Chapter 3: Literature Review 65
invite socialisation between mentors and mentees, which assists first-year students to develop
their own identities as university students and adapt to university life (H. Christie, 2014).
Notwithstanding the advantages of mentoring in enhancing positive outcomes for students,
risks are also present; in particular, there are “dangers in constructing mentors as being in a formal
position of expertise” (H. Christie, 2014, p. 962) and potentially engaging in exchanges reflective
of power and control. Moreover, in some instances, mentees expect assistance with their academic
work, and when this does not occur it can cause stress and a feeling of mistrust by the mentee
towards the mentor (H. Christie, 2014). These findings illuminate the context of mentor
provisions as a strategy for first-year support and value mentoring researched by Douglass et al.
(2013) and Heirdsfield et al. (2008). What is implied in these outcomes is that mentoring along
with continuing orientation programs are linked to a variety of supports including more formal
academic assistance, particularly from the mentors themselves.
Academic support services
All universities offer students at the beginning and throughout the duration of their degree
academic support services. These services are planned and implemented to assist with the
smooth transition into university life (Hossain, Gorman, Lawrence, & Burton, 2012). Academic
support services may include a weekly one-hour support session outside normal class time.
These sessions focus on specific skills such as referencing and writing workshops, with the
inclusion of understanding assessment criteria. It has been reported that students’ value specific
guidelines in the writing of assignments (Bovill et al., 2011). Moreover, they particularly
appreciate academic support personnel with whom they can discuss the writing of their
assignments. While these strategies have been reported as desirable, for the most part they are
less satisfied with the “support provided in terms of contact time with tutors and feedback on
performance (Blair, 2017, p. 215). Further, students were generally happy with supports from
academics, but often struggled with what is expected in assignments, despite knowing where
66 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
they can go for such support. Associated with such processes are the practices of assessment
and feedback that are embedded in learning units and experiences.
Assessment and feedback
Assessment and feedback have been identified as “key professional activities” in higher
education (Barnard, de Luca, & Li, 2014, p. 933); however, some researchers would argue that
there has been minimal focus on the importance of feedback in first year (e.g., Blair, 2017). It
is well established in the research literature that assessment and feedback are most valuable
when undertaken early in the first semester of first year to encourage a sense of engagement, to
evaluate and support student learning and achievement, and to give feedback on assessment
pieces (Larkin et al., 2016; Lynam & Cachia, 2018; Thomas, Martin, & Pleasants 2011). This
is supported by research showing that students may be at risk of leaving university due to
difficulties they have with assessment early in their degree (Lizzio & Wilson, 2013). Although
established as important for students, it has also been reported that once students “submit their
work, they typically become disengaged with the assessment process … because they become
passive recipients of assessment outcomes” (Thomas et al., 2011, p. 1). Rather than developing
a passive manner towards feedback and assessment, what students prefer is verbal feedback to
assist with their understanding (Blair, 2017). This has been suggested to alleviate the
disengagement. Further, Thomas et al. (2011) identified that peer and self-assessment might
add to a fuller understanding by students if it is used as well as feedback from teachers and
should be applied on a larger scale in the first year of university. This approach was also
supported by Nulty (2010) in earlier research.
As a complement to lecturer feedback, peer and self-assessment practices allow students to
become “realistic judges of their own performance” (Thomas et al., 2011, p. 2). Further, Barnard
et al. (2014) examined peer feedback, which demonstrated that students were initially
apprehensive about receiving and giving feedback; however, their attitudes and skills changed
during the course of the process as it became evident that their learning was being understood and
Chapter 3: Literature Review 67
scaffolded by their peers. This, in turn, allowed students to practise peer feedback as that served
to build confidence and understanding about the learning process (Blair, 2017). Extending the
proposition of self and peer assessment, Cramp (2011) addresses the importance of feedback in
first year with the inclusion of allocated times set aside for personal tutoring sessions with
allocated tutors. These sessions would offer the student the overarching ideas of university-related
academic skills required by academic teaching staff and how these could assist with a variety of
assessment types. Initially, they would assist with an awareness of academic demands, endeavour
to make assessment clearer, and offer an interpretation of feedback. This research was undertaken
by a cohort of 200 students, and staff were allocated 25 hours into their workload to assist students
with feedback. Students and staff would attend meetings to discuss content and feedback on their
assignments (Cramp, 2011). The study concluded that the sessions benefitted students in regard
to understanding the feedback they received from lecturers as well as assisting in developing
learning relationships with their personal tutors.
Another aspect of assessment prevalent in the literature is the concept of group work.
Group work is considered an assessment strategy and a common pedagogical practice within
first year. The argument presented is that being involved in group work supports students to
participate in collaborative learning (Robertson, Naylor, & Sleeman, 2019); however, not all
students agree that they even like group work, “because they don’t want their grade held hostage
by someone else’s effort (or lack thereof), or they have had experience of having to do other
people’s work for them” (Murray, 2017, p. 1). In addition, their hectic schedules may not allow
them the time to complete designated work on time because each group member’s commitments
do not allow collaborative time together.
The actual composition of each group is also an important aspect for students, and it has
previously been argued in the literature whether students should organise their own groups or
whether the lecturer should take charge (Watson, 1996). Further to this notion is that all groups
should be heterogeneous as this ensures that groups are diverse with a greater range of opinions,
68 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
and this will assist students to work with others, which can be more effective in the long run
(Hernandez, 2002). Not only are these factors important when forming groups, but research by
Mahoney (2010) suggests the size of the group is important as well. Four to six students in a
group is a manageable size as it ensures that students interact with one another (Mahoney, 2010).
Beyond arguments about group composition, Murray’s (2017) work focused on his
decision to continually try to improve the group assessment presented in the courses he taught.
His main outcome was to make sure that the group presentation had a balance between individual
assessment and group assessment and that each student was accountable for their specific duties
allocated to them. To achieve this, he assigned half of each student’s grade as individual (usually
a draft) and the other half as a group final product. Murray (2017) argued that the latter had been
more challenging at times. To ascertain this challenge, he devised the terms “Captainships” and
“Non-Compliance Policy” in the major group assignments (p. 2). To this end, “Captainships”
refers to assigning each group member a specific role and responsibility, for example, a Team
manager. His approach is not isolated. For example, Mayne (2012) concurred that ensuring at
least one group member has leaderships skills is paramount for the success of the group, while
Shoemaker (2011) related his group work research through the concepts of “responsibility”,
“attributability”, “answerability” and “accountability” (p. 602). The most distinct concept within
his research is “responsibility”. In essence, this focuses on students being responsible for their
actions and draws on work by Scanlon (2008) and Smith (2007) to assist in seeking answers
concerning what it means for a student to be attributable, accountable, and answerable for an
action when undertaking group work. It highlights the importance of students understanding what
their moral obligations to peers are and that each student needs to accept ownership for the work
they engage in regardless of failure or fulfilment of such obligations (Shoemaker, 2015).
Taking the issues of roles for group members and issues of accountability one step further,
Murray’s (2017) “Non-Compliance Policy” provides a “protocol by which a group can
essentially fire a member of the group from any aspect of the project if they are not doing their
Chapter 3: Literature Review 69
work, thereby protecting their own grades” (Murray, 2017, p. 3). The outcomes of Murray’s
work are reported as both positive and productive, with the students in his classes reporting that
they “actually enjoyed the group work and it was a favourite part of the course” (p. 2). His
research concluded that the two strategies have assisted to make the students “more cognizant
of their responsibilities to other group members by explicitly assigning and defining those
responsibilities and ensure that any group dysfunction is discussed, so students can reflect on
their own complicity” (Murray, 2017, p. 3). Earlier research in the field of student collaboration
and group work was established by Johnson and Johnson (2004) and drawn upon by Murray
(2017). Their research consisted of “the power of cooperative groups” (Johnson & Johnson,
2004, p. 6); however, it lacked the capacity to focus on the individual in the group, and rather,
it sought to provide a thorough account of how the group functions as a whole. This being said,
they do engage with the fact that “everyone has to do his or her fair share of the work” and that
all members are accountable (Johnson & Johnson, 2004, p. 29). This research aligns with
Murray’s pedagogical practices of the same ilk.
3.4.3 ITE exists within the context of the broader university
ITE exists within the context of the broader university. It responds to this context through
awareness and intervention in culture; blended and online learning methods; Surface, Deep, and
Achieving approaches and learning experiences, all of which are discussed in the research
literature and are included in this section.
Culture of university
University culture is the integrated patterns of behaviour or products that we can learn
through an enculturation process, making it possible to pass that cultural makeup on to others
as they join the environment (Byrne, 2016). These behaviours or products may involve cultural
values and norms to which new students and staff must adjust as both come to the university
with their own individual cultural values and these are moulded to fit those of the established
culture of the university (McPhail et al., 2015). Further, Byrne (2016) confirmed that
70 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
engagement with the cultural environment may be hindered when students and staff do not
share similar social and cultural backgrounds. Past research confirms that associated with these
backgrounds are the additional challenges of managing student identity, understanding
academic writing and knowing what the university culture entails (Mak & Barker, 2000).
Students must also develop communication, interpersonal, presentation and self-management
skills, which are integral to university success and integration into the university culture (Mak
& Barker, 2000). Addressing this problem becomes an immediate priority as “students must
adjust simultaneously to the environment, teaching and learning styles, life, procedures,
practices and disciplines of the university” (Lawrence, 2002, p. 4). Further, if students fail to
engage with the cultural challenges, their learning may be impeded. In this instance, the
experiences resonated with other research as some “students’ engagement with the university
cultural experience is like engaging in a battle, a conflict. These are the students for whom the
culture of the university is foreign and at times alienating and uninviting” (Krause, 2005, p.9).
Further, Byrne’s (2016) research revealed that there are many aspects of cultures or
subcultures at university and confirmed that these consist of the following:
The composition (including ethnicity and age) and relationship of faculty,
students, and staff; disciplinary and interdisciplinary approaches to problem
solving and knowledge creation; balance of teaching, scholarship, and service;
relationship of academic, athletic, and cultural pursuits; focus on individual and/or
team excellence; and many others. (p. 56)
These subcultures can be determined by the university, its standards and values, along with
personal expectations, which are influenced by both internal and external bodies. These include
added pressure from students and professional affiliations, university mission and priorities,
expectations of consumers (including parents and students), resource availability, and the
leadership of the institution. Worthy of note is that cultural dimensions of universities are many,
varied and complex (Byrne, 2016).
Chapter 3: Literature Review 71
These findings have been confirmed by current research and further suggest that with the
economic context and rapidly evolving university cultures, universities are required to improve
their decision-making processes regularly (Romero-Pérez, Mateos-Blanco, & de las Heras-
Monastero, 2017). This then strengthens the university competitiveness and assists to find the
best way to satisfy university users with a more efficient use of resources, productivity and
services.
Blended and online learning
As discussed earlier, universities are recognising the ever-changing nature of students’
lives in terms of the necessity for them to juggle employment, family, community and
recreational pursuits along with meeting university learning expectations. Consequently,
blended and online learning technologies are an integral part of the university learning
provisions (Ellis & Bliuc, 2019). In addition, online and face-to-face learning are generally
integrated, using a combination of internet-based technologies and online activities that in
essence extend in-class learning. An increasing online presence and the provision of a diverse
range of opportunities for blended and online studies is widely employed by universities
(Boelens, Voet, & De Wever, 2018; Redmond et al., 2018). This prevalence means that blended
and online teaching and learning is now considered the “new normal” in universities
(Havemann, Charles, Sherman, Rodgers, & Barros, 2019, p. 1).
In addition to ease of accessibility for students, other positive outcomes from blended and
online learning include a flexible response to the mix of learning preferences and the application
of multiple pedagogical options (Keengwe & Kang, 2013). López-Pérez, Pérez-López, &
Rodríguez-Ariza (2011) reported that blended learning also has a positive effect on attrition
rates and improving final grades as it allows students the opportunity to connect with other
forms of learning, generally termed e-learning, other than face-to-face lecture style teaching.
These e-learning activities were aimed at students’ ability to understand concepts being taught.
Activities such as crosswords, matching, multi-choice tests, and wikis were designed to support
72 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
the students (López-Pérez et al., 2011). It is through these blended learning approaches and e-
learning activities that many of the students in this study experienced support in areas of utility,
motivation and satisfaction. This large study received 985 completed questionnaires that
targeted these three concepts. Reported Cronbach’s alpha results of comprehensive survey
questions were “0.7 for utility, 0.76 for motivation and 0.73 for satisfaction” (López-Pérez et
al., 2011, p. 820), which indicate internal consistency reliability for each of the three scales.
The results highlight the significance of utility, motivation and satisfaction and encourage
positive attitudes towards student learning. In addition, the online activities incorporated into
the units were useful and enhanced and supported their learning process. Further, these
activities would influence how they study independently (López-Pérez et al., 2011).
The findings of Guzer and Caner (2014), while identifying the options associated with
online learning, questioned whether the characteristics of online learning were enough to create
a supportive and positive online learning environment. The research concluded that “teachers
using blended learning environments should encourage student participation in the environment
and should find ways of creating social interaction through more collaboration” (p. 4602). They
reported from the literature they reviewed from previous studies that students would benefit
more from this approach if these environments were planned with more engagement intent
(Guzer & Caner, 2014). Ellis and Bliuc (2019) have confirmed more recently that online and
blended learning can offer positive outcomes for students in the form of deep learning. They
used three questionnaires in their study that were administered in two parts at the end of the
year. Part A included 93 participants in their first year and the Part B population included 145
a year later. The questionnaires were a combination of the “Student Approaches to Inquiry
(SAI) questionnaire; the Student Approaches to Online Learning Technologies (SAOLT)
questionnaire and the Student Perceptions of the Learning Environment (SPLE) questionnaire”
(Ellis & Bliuc, 2019, p. 14). Each questionnaire has two subsets: Surface and Deep approaches.
Accordingly, the “Cronbach’s alphas of the subscales were calculated to assess the internal
Chapter 3: Literature Review 73
consistency of the subscales” (Ellis & Bliuc, 2019, p. 15). The Cronbach’s alphas ranged from
.061 to .084 for the subscales in the three questionnaires and were considered as reliable. The
results of the study are quite broad and detailed, but the overarching findings indicate that there
are “distinct patterns of associations between students’ approaches to inquiry and online
learning technologies, and their perceptions of the online learning context” (Ellis & Bliuc, 2019,
p. 18). Further, the scales in the study reviewed Deep and Surface approaches to inquiry and
learning within the online context and are consistent with scales applied in an Australian context
(Biggs, 1987).
Surface, Deep, and Achieving approaches to learning
Learning approaches have been discussed in the literature as Surface, Deep, and
Achieving. Biggs (1987) developed and validated the SPQ with a cohort of over 800 students
to identify learning styles. The SPQ has subsequently been used in research (see, for example,
Ellis & Bliuc, 2019; Lake & Boyd, 2015; Regan, 1996; Zeegers, 2001) and is acknowledged as
a valuable tool that supports understanding of student learning approaches (see Section 5.2).
The tool is used to assist in identifying the level of Surface, Deep, or Achieving approaches
used by students throughout their time at university (Lake & Boyd, 2015). The inclusion of
these three approaches to student learning was based on the initial work by Biggs (1987) which
was supported subsequently by the development of a survey instrumentation that assessed these
approaches. Surface learning highlights a teacher-focused approach, where the teacher imparts
knowledge and information to students and students are then required to reproduce that
information (Lake & Boyd, 2015). In response to this surface learning approach, the learner is
typically unmotivated and works to meet minimal course requirements set by the teacher.
Further, they can achieve their goals by rote strategies. Over 30 years ago, it was claimed that
surface learners are unlikely to be competent meta-learners. This means that surface learners
will not strive to search and understand all they can about the content of their subjects, do not
want to achieve high marks, and will be disorganised and unmotivated (Biggs, 1987).
74 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
In contrast, deep learners are intrinsically motivated, seek to personalise their learning,
and undertake meaningful learning activities. These learners are motivated to achieve high
grades, be competitive, and be self-organised in their learning practices (Biggs, 1987; Lake &
Boyd, 2015). All students are capable of developing surface learning approaches; however,
learning at a deeper level requires very different approaches and strategies that have been
identified as more difficult to achieve (Ramsden, 2003). In addition, students focus on the main
ideas of the topic and at the same time draw on their prior knowledge, assisting them to
understand and create the overall picture of that being studied (Lake & Boyd, 2015). Their
attitude towards the task is almost always positive and they show an interest, along with
expecting a challenge and working towards completing that challenge. Students who engage in
Deep approaches have been identified as those who “set about the task with the intention of
understanding it for themselves, which, of course, makes it more likely they grasp the meaning”
(Entwistle, 2009, p. 33).
Students who undertake an Achieving approach to learning do so by adopting strategies
and motives that allow them to set themselves targets. These targets are generally associated
with particular grades they wish to work towards in conjunction with the effort they need to
establish in order to achieve that result (Lake & Boyd, 2015). In earlier research, Biggs,
Kember, and Leung (2001) confirmed that the Achieving approach to learning was also based
on how students organise how they will engage with the task they set out to undertake. This
includes how, what and where they choose to engage.
A recent Australian study by Lake and Boyd (2015) involved a self-selecting group of
students across all faculties. The survey included 20 questions from the original Study Process
Questionnaire (SPQ) (Biggs, 1987; Biggs et al., 2001), now called the revised two-factor SPQ
(R-SPQ-2F) with questions that related to gender, age and grade point average. This study
focused on two main scales, which were Deep and Surface approaches, as opposed to the
original study that assessed Surface, Deep, and Achieving approaches. Five hundred and sixty
Chapter 3: Literature Review 75
students returned the survey, which represented approximately 5% of the student cohort. This
figure is considerably less than Biggs’s 1987 study, where approximately 850 students
(representing 24%) returned the original survey. Age was used as a grouping variable: 25 years
and under and the over 25-year-old group. The study indicated changes in learning approaches,
with the Surface approaches declining over time and the Deep approaches increasing over time
(Lake & Boyd, 2015). “While the overall patterns are similar for the 25 and under and over 25-
year-old cohorts, the older groups appear to start with a greater propensity towards surface
learning and less propensity towards deep learning than the younger group” (Lake & Boyd,
2015, p. 58).
Associated with Deep and Surface approaches are processes of self-reflection. Reflection
is another essential skill to develop while studying at university (Pretorius & Ford, 2016).
Students who develop reflection skills are considered to be deep learners (Entwistle, 2009; Lake
& Boyd, 2015). The processes involved in reflective practice have been discussed in terms of
the application of four lenses within the teaching and learning process. These include the lens
of appreciation of one’s autobiography as a learner; the lens of operating in the eyes of other
students; the lens of perception by colleagues; and the lens of compliance with educational
literature (Brookfield, 2002). Moreover, the essence of reflective practice demands that
contextual appreciation be developed so that cognitive skills are increased and that students are
given the opportunity to participate in genuine learning experiences (Brookfield, 2002). This
process of reflection engages the learner to identify personal learning goals and develop
intellectual independence (Hickson, 2011).
Engaging the learner is important as teachers and students both use the skill of reflection
to understand, question and investigate their own learning and practice (Boud, 2001). In
addition, even though reflection is integral to quality teaching, students are expected to
“develop reflection skills through their assignments” (Pretorius & Ford, 2016, p. 241), but in
Pretorius and Ford’s (2016) study it was identified that students are expected to achieve this
76 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
with only “minimal instruction, practice or guidance on how to reflect” (p. 241). The students
in this study were required to attempt reflections before they were taught reflective practice
theory. One hundred and seventeen students participated in the program called “Transition 2
University (T2U)”, with 58% being mature-aged (Pretorius & Ford, 2016, p. 242). The original
premise of the program established in 2015 was to assist students with their academic
achievement and do so by integrating both content knowledge and real experiences so students
could transfer these skills to their learning (Ford et al., 2015; Pretorius & Ford, 2016). The 2016
study extended this idea and worked on transferable skills and reflective practice using journals
and daily reflection prompt questions. The students were also provided with a questionnaire
where three questions focused on reflective practice. The study concluded that those students
who attended the T2U program appeared to have an understanding of reflective practice and
continued to use the strategy to assist their study (Pretorius & Ford, 2016). The authors also
went on to argue that when reflective practices are demonstrated in transition programs for first-
year students, the students are more likely to appreciate reflection as a tool for learning and use
it more effectively and consistently throughout their student life (Pretorius & Ford, 2016).
Reflective practice is also reported as enabling students to evaluate their performance and
better align their capacity to self-assess through judgements of their performance and learning.
Importantly, it assists both teachers and students to make informed decisions as to their learning
and teaching engagements (Biggs & Tang, 2007; Entwistle, 2009).
3.5 SUMMARY
Chapter 3 has reviewed individual and institutional factors influencing student transition
into the first year of university. Literature examined first-year student characteristics and student
engagement in higher education. In addition, the literature review covered university provisions
for FYE students, including (a) orientation programs; (b) ongoing supports the university
provides throughout a student’s first year, such as mentoring programs, academic support
Chapter 3: Literature Review 77
services, and assessment and feedback; and (c) ITE exists within the context of the broader
university; including culture, blended and online learning. The review concluded with a
discussion of a third aspect of the broader context of the university to pre-service teacher
education: Surface, Deep, and Achieving approaches to learning as integral to academic success.
This review of the research literature has highlighted a range of tools developed by
researchers that assist researchers who follow in their footsteps. The review has also provided
insights that contribute to or alleviate the research problem that is the impetus for this study. It
demonstrated that some data were dated, some were gathered in one context and in a variety of
ways, and some were collected in real time to investigate the causes of the problem. A
significant milestone for this study has been reached with the generation of the research question:
How do first-year Bachelor of Education (Primary) students at Australian Catholic
University (ACU) on the Brisbane campus engage with supports and experience university
life, and can a tool be developed to assess engagement that will benefit the wider higher
education community?
This research question directs the selection of research design for the study, which is discussed
in the following chapter.
Chapter 5: Design of the Research 79
Chapter 4: Design of the Research
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this study is to understand the way first-year Bachelor of Education
(Primary) students at ACU on the Brisbane campus experience and engage with supports
offered by the university and university life.
In Chapter 2: Identifying the Research Problem, the discussion concluded with the
articulation of this research purpose. In Chapter 3: Literature Review, the synthesis of the
research literature resulted in three themes: FYE transition, What students bring to university, and
University provisions for FYE students. This discussion concluded with the generation of the
research question:
How do first-year Bachelor of Education (Primary) students at Australian Catholic
University (ACU) on the Brisbane campus engage with supports and experience university
life, and can a tool be developed to assess engagement that will benefit the wider higher
education community?
The purpose of this chapter, Chapter 4: Design of the Research, is to respond to this
research question by presenting the research design for this study. The discussion that follows
includes seven sections. In Section 4.2 the theoretical framework is discussed, followed by the
research methodology in Section 4.3. In Section 4.4 data analysis and interpretation of the
quantitative and qualitative data are discussed. Section 4.5 addresses verification of the research.
Section 4.6 addresses ethical issues and then in Section 4.7 the limitations and delimitations of
the study are presented. The chapter concludes with a summary in Section 4.8.
80 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
4.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
A theoretical framework for research offers a philosophical foundation that gives
direction and structure to the research design and determines the data collection strategies and
analysis for the research (Creswell, 2008). The areas within the framework are the
epistemology, research paradigm, and theoretical perspective. Each of these areas is aligned to
the research purpose and question and the framework ensures that the assumptions embedded
in the epistemological stance inform each element (Crotty, 1998).
Epistemology is a theory of knowledge that is embedded in the theoretical perspective on
the nature of knowledge and learning (Crotty, 1998). This study employs the epistemological
theory of constructionism to guide the exploration of the Bachelor of Education (Primary)
students and their experiences in their first year at ACU. This is discussed in Section 4.2.1.
From within the constructionist epistemological stance, the research paradigm of
interpretivism is adopted, and nested within this paradigm, the lens of symbolic interactionism
is used to draw meaning from the data (Creswell, 2008). This identifies a basis for the study to
draw a deep understanding of the social lifeworld (Charon, 2010; Neuman, 2006) of Bachelor
of Education (Primary) students. Interpretivism is discussed in Section 4.2.2 followed by a
discussion of symbolic interactionism in Section 4.2.3. The methodological approach of case
study has also been adopted for this study and this approach is discussed in Section 4.2.4.
4.2.1 Epistemology: Constructionism
Epistemological theories draw on the different kinds of knowledge that can be known
(Crotty, 1998). In this way, epistemological theory reflects the researcher’s perspective on the
knowledge that can be known and therefore underpins and guides the selection of research
decisions. For each research study it demonstrates the researcher’s perspective and how
knowledge is studied and generated; it also determines whether it is valid (O’Donoghue, 2018).
It sets the boundaries, indicates how knowledge is seen as true, and develops parameters as to
Chapter 5: Design of the Research 81
how knowledge is created. The epistemology adopted for this study is constructionism, as it is
believed that by focusing on the individuals enrolled in the Bachelor of Education (Primary)
degree, with a view to understanding and knowing how they socialise with their peers in first
year and how they share their realities and, in the process, construct meaning about their FYEs,
(Crotty, 1998).
The epistemological framework of constructionism claims that “designing in itself is not
research unless it is also accompanied by reflection upon the process making” (Feast & Melles,
2010, p. 1). It also includes the paradigm that humans construct their understanding of reality
and scaffold their learning (O’Toole & Beckett, 2010) and that “reality is constructed by
individuals interacting with their social world” (Merriam, 1998, p. 6).
Constructionism provides a definite view of the world and applies culture to aid in
shaping how individuals interpret their world (Crotty, 1998). It also provides the perspective
that “what is real is a construction of the minds of individuals” (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p. 83).
Further, individuals develop subjective meanings of their experience by seeking understanding
of how they interact in their world and the world in which they interact (Creswell, 2008), and
for this study it is the world of first-year university life.
Constructionism deals also with the meaning of truth and rejects the ideas of objective
and subjective “truth” (Crotty, 1998, p. 43), as this notion of scientific objectivity has no place
in constructionism. This position is consistent with my perceptions, as I perceive that the
realities of one student attending university are not the same as those of another student;
therefore, each student’s truth can be entirely different.
Constructionists acknowledge that objects in the world should not be separated from the
world. According to Sarantakos (2013), constructionism incorporates the following assumptions:
•
There is no objective reality; the physical world exists but is not accessible
to human endeavour.
•
There are no absolute truths.
82 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
•
Knowledge does not come through the senses alone.
•
Research focuses on the construction of meanings.
•
Meanings are not fixed but emerge out of people’s interaction with the
world.
•
Meanings do not exist before a mind engages them.
•
The world is constructed by the people who live in it. (p. 38)
Constructionism provides the overarching theoretical perspective for this study, which
endeavours to illuminate the first-year students’ realities of attending university. Students bring
to university prior knowledge and experiences. These are extended through the learning and
teaching environment provided at university and lead to these students’ ongoing construction
of meaning within their worlds. Therefore, the use of the constructionist epistemology is
relevant for this study as student perceptions of their experience inform and shape their
behaviour and ultimately the findings that will result from this study.
4.2.2 Research paradigm: Interpretivism
A research paradigm is an approach to represent and explain human society (Crotty,
1998). It is based on a way of viewing and constructing an understanding of the world (Blumer,
1998; Crotty, 1998). The research paradigm adopted for this research is interpretivism and this
sits within the epistemological theory of constructionism (Crotty, 1998; Merriam, 1998).
Interpretivism proposes that there are numerous realities that define individual experience
and these realities can change according to time and place. It highlights social interaction as the
foundation for knowledge (O’Donoghue, 2018), and in this instance, it is the knowledge
construction of first-year Bachelor of Education (Primary) students. Further, interpretivism
provides a lens for social interaction within the world the students are interpreting. In attending
university, they may make sense of that world based on their past and social perspective
(Charon, 2010). They seek to understand the context and then interpret what they find, which
Chapter 5: Design of the Research 83
is shaped by their own experiences and backgrounds as well as the experiences and backgrounds
of other first-year students with whom they interact (Charon, 2010).
In the case of this research, the purpose of this study is to understand the way first-year
Bachelor of Education (Primary) students at ACU on the Brisbane campus experience and
engage with supports offered by the university and university life.
Knowledge is constructed by mutual negotiation and is specific to the learning
experiences of the first-year students in this study. Interpretivism focuses on analysing symbols,
such as signals, behaviours or language as a means of understanding the students’ world. Within
this research, interpretivism provides the research direction and highlights individual influences
on students’ learning experiences in their first year of university (Crotty, 1998). There are three
forms of interpretivism, being symbolic interactionism, hermeneutics, and phenomenology:
• “Symbolic interactionism is where the investigator is directed to take, to the best of
their ability, the standpoint of those being studied” (Denzin, 1978, p. 99).
• “Hermeneutics is an attempt to read human practices, human events, and human
situations in ways that bring understanding” (Crotty, 1998, p. 87).
• “Phenomenology is in the search of objects of experience rather than being content
with a description of the experiencing subject” (Crotty, 1998, p. 83).
Symbolic interactionism has been adopted for this study.
4.2.3 Theoretical perspective: Symbolic interactionism
Symbolic interactionism is the theoretical lens used for this research as it aims to construct
meaning through the use of social interactions from the perspective of the first-year students
under study. It focuses on the study of these students and their social worlds. The symbolic
interactionist viewpoint believes “that the very essence of being human depends upon four
interdependent socially-created characteristics: use of symbol; possession of self; engaging in
ongoing mind action; and taking the role of the other” (Sly, 2008, p. 1).
84 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
These four characteristics of symbolic interactionism are important for first-year Bachelor
Education (Primary) students and how they experience learning. Students socially construct their
world through the use of symbols, such as gestures and words, in communication amongst
themselves and with their lecturers in order to understand the university world in which they are
immersed (Charon, 2010). In this instance, “complex human society relies on symbolic
communication” (Sly, 2008, p. 2). Symbols are argued to include classes of social objects and are
comprised of language and other gestures; however, words are the most important symbols,
making human thinking possible (Charon, 2010). They are social, meaningful, and important for
communication. Symbolic communication is made up of two parts: (a) the actor uses symbols to
enable self-talk, and (b) the actor uses symbols to communicate with others (Charon, 2010).
Symbolic interactionists acknowledge the importance of the “self”. Humans have many
“selves” and these reflect the differing groups with whom they engage (Sly, 2008, p. 2). Each
student comes with differing backgrounds, circumstances, and real-life journeys. They are
balancing work, life, study, and family. These “groups” are influential for first-year students
and each student brings with them experiences from their world. The “real self” for first-year
students is dependent on which group they “fit” into. “The central principle to symbolic
interactionism is that we only understand what is going on if we understand what actors
themselves believe about their world” (Charon, 2010, p. 206). Further to this notion, the
researcher interacts with the actors through observation and interviews to “reconstruct their
reality” (Charon, 2010, p. 206). It is with this lens that the researcher may begin to understand
the actor’s perspective and how and what has influenced their actions. According to Charon
(2010), the following five broad premises pertain to symbolic interactionism:
1. Social interaction is almost always central to what we do.
2. Thinking is almost always central to what we do.
3. Definition is everything; what we do does not result simply from reality as it is but
from how we define what it is.
Chapter 5: Design of the Research 85
4. The present, not the past, must be understood in order to understand cause; what is
going on right now in our present situation makes the real difference in how we act.
5. We are here conceptualised as active participants in what we do.
The overarching perspective of symbolic interactionism is that humans act the way they
do because of how they define situations. In this way, it is the experiences of first-year Bachelor
of Education (Primary) students that will generate meaning, particularly through being socially
interactive with each other. The students are identifying and making meaning from these
experiences within the university context.
Three tenets are central to the concept of symbolic interactionism (Blumer, 1969). The
first tenet views how individuals attribute their own meaning making to a given phenomenon
and act according to their constructed meaning. Tenet one also views communication as a
symbolic process that takes place through language and symbols. In making these choices,
individuals exhibit a sense of personal decision-making that influences their actions
(O’Donoghue, 2018).
The second tenet is that meaning making is derived from social interaction with others.
This statement suggests that “the meaning of a thing for a person grows out of the ways in
which other people act towards the person with regard to the thing” (Blumer, 1969, p. 2). What
is derived here is that understanding or meaning ascertained by a person can be regularly
changing due to interactions with others. This means that the view of the world or perspective
of the person is not fixed or constant as there is a level of acceptance that views alternative to
one’s own views are possible.
The third tenet is that meaning making is “handled and modified through an interpretive
process used by the person in dealing with the things he or she encounters” (Blumer, 1969,
p. 2). Within this tenet people identify that things have different meanings, and people check,
review, and transform meaning depending on the situation and the interaction with others
(O’Donoghue, 2018) that results in a common meaning. This process is true for the students in
86 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
this study as well as for me as the researcher. Trying to understand and interpret the students’
differing meanings is the role of the researcher. In this case, the researcher is interacting with
the participants and therefore becomes symbolic only because of the significant symbols, that
is, the language, gestures, and non-verbal communication that we share and through which we
communicate. It is only through this dialogue the researcher becomes aware of the perceptions,
feelings, beliefs and attitudes of others and is able to interpret their meaning making and intent
(Crotty, 1998).
Symbolic interactionism employs two distinct phases during data collection, the
Exploration Phase and the Inspection Phase (Charon, 2007). The Exploration Phase is where
the researcher gains an early understanding of “what is going on around here?” (Charon, 2007,
p. 147). The second phase is the Inspection Phase where issues identified in the Exploration
Phase can be investigated further.
The adopted theoretical perspective of symbolic interactionism has informed the selection
of case study as the research methodology (Crotty, 1998).
4.2.4 Research methodology: Case study
Research methodology is the “strategy, plan of action, process or design lying behind the
choice and use of particular methods and linking the choice and use of the methods to the
desired outcome” (Crotty, 1998, p. 3). The methodology selection is also directly linked to the
epistemology and research paradigm and justifies the choice of data collection strategies and
how these are implemented (Sarantakos, 2013).
This research adopts case study as the methodology, which incorporates the views of the
actors in the case under study (Hughes & Hitchcock, 1995). The case under study in this
research is the experience of Bachelor of Education (Primary) students in their first year of
university.
Chapter 5: Design of the Research 87
A case study is an in-depth exploration of a bounded system (Creswell, 2008; Miles &
Huberman, 1994). It is a procedure of enquiry that investigates a phenomenon within a context,
especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not obvious (Merriam,
1998). This methodology allows the researcher to gather data about the learning experiences of
the first-year “actors” involved. Case study recognises that the context is a powerful
determinant of both causes and effects (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2011). “The purpose of
case study is not to represent the world, but to represent the case” (Neuman, 2006, p.158) as it
is “case[s] and not variables” which are of interest in the interpretivist approach (Stake, 1995,
p. 245). In this study the case was the way in which first-year Bachelor of Education (Primary)
students at ACU on the Brisbane campus experience and engage with supports offered by the
university. This case study, as with all case studies, requires the researcher to provide rich
descriptions and analysis of their deeper understanding of how the participants construct
meaning during the learning process (Bryman, 2008) so that the reader can generalise to their
own context as case study research is not generalisable. It is intended that the findings from this
research will benefit other higher education institutions. Case study assists with feeling like an
inconspicuous observer in the life of the participants, while still being in close proximity,
permitting the researcher to understand the students’ real-life situations (Merriam, 1998). The
context in which the participants are involved is unique and dynamic as they are a part of a
social group all striving for the same outcome—to become teachers—which permits close
observations of the unfolding interactions of events and human relationships in this social
context that will be observed.
Notwithstanding the support for case study methodology, there has been criticism of this
methodology and, more specifically, the influence of subjectivity (Punch, 2013). That is, the
researcher may interpret results selectively without wider verification. The researcher is the
main person collecting and analysing data and generating findings. This may lead the researcher
to influence the findings and conclusions reached (Punch, 2013). Several strategies, such as
88 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
constant engagement with the participants at the site of the research along with the use of
multiple data collection strategies, have been identified as ways to alleviate this problem
(Neuman, 2006). By sourcing rich data and information from the participants using differing
techniques, case study evidence may be stronger. However, in response, critics of case study
methodology argue that the quantity of the data gathered may overwhelm the researcher and be
too long to hold the reader’s attention. With the consideration of these criticisms in mind, case
study has been selected for this study.
This section of Chapter 4 has discussed the theoretical framework adopted for this study.
Table 4.1 draws this discussion together by listing the decisions made.
Table 4.1
Theoretical Framework Used in This Study
Element of theoretical framework
Theoretical framework used
Epistemology
Constructionism
Research paradigm
Interpretivism
Theoretical perspective
Symbolic interactionism
Research methodology
Case study
4.3 METHOD
In this section of Chapter 4 the method of the study is discussed. The research participants
are identified in Section 4.3.1, followed by the data collection strategies of the SPQ, semi-
structured in-depth focus group interviews, and semi-structured in-depth individual interviews
with students and staff in Section 4.3.2.
4.3.1 Research participants
Participants are the informants for the study and assist with illuminating the ideas of the
case (Patton, 2002). The participants in this study were a cohort of first-year Bachelor of
Chapter 5: Design of the Research 89
Education (Primary) students (N = 150). The sample in this study was purposive as they were
the students available to the researcher on the Brisbane campus of ACU. They were also easily
accessible by the researcher as she is a Lecturer in Education at ACU and had access to these
students. This first-year cohort of 150 students was invited to voluntarily participate in this
study. An invitation to complete the questionnaire was sent to the cohort of students. Of the 150
students, 30 agreed to participate in the semi-structured in-depth focus group interviews and 12
of these students participated further by being individually interviewed using a semi-structured
in-depth interview approach. This represents a small proportion of students engaging in
interview, which is typical of qualitative research of this type. Overall, 35% of the student
population participated in this study which is reflective of an acceptable level for interpretive
studies.
In addition to student participation, three non-academic staff members were invited to
participate in semi-structured in-depth individual interviews (see Appendix A). The
contributions of these staff are considered important as the staff provide many of the support
services offered by the university through their work in the Office of Student Success (OSS),
inclusive of the Academic Skills Unit and Orientation Day Committee.
A summary of participant groups and interview strategies is provided in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2
Participant Groups and Interview Strategies
Participant group
SPQ
Focus group
participants
Individual
interviews
a
Number of
participants
Students
SPQ1 = 150
SPQ2 = 150
30
12
150
Non-academic staff
3
3
a
Individual interviews include in-depth case studies.
90 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
4.3.2 Data collection strategies
This study used three data collection strategies: the SPQ (Biggs, 1987); semi-structured
in-depth focus group interviews, and semi-structured in-depth individual interviews with
students and non-academic staff.
SPQ
The SPQ (Biggs, 1987) is a “self-report” (p. 8) questionnaire used to identify the learning
approaches of higher education students see Appendix B). The SPQ is a 42-item questionnaire
that identifies approaches learners adopt when engaging with university study. The SPQ was
administered first within the data gathering strategies in order to ascertain the students
approaches to learning. Statistical analysis (descriptive and inferential) were then used as a
guide to develop the interview protocol for the semi-structured in-depth focus group and
individual interviews. Biggs (1987) has identified three possible approaches to learning—
Surface approaches, Deep approaches, and Achieving approaches—which are further refined
by Motives and Strategies adopted. Surface Motives are extrinsic, such as fear of failing, while
Surface Strategies include reproductive or rote learning and minimalistic learning such as
learning that is just enough to meet the course demands (Biggs, 1987). Identification of these
approaches is important as such approaches may lead to inadequate academic performance
(Biggs & Tang, 2007). In contrast, students who engage in Deep approaches undertake the tasks
with the intention to understand. Students employing Deep approaches work towards
generating personal and academic meaning. These strategies are intrinsic, aiming to achieve
maximum academic performance (Entwistle, 2009). Achieving approaches also concern
maximising performance. Students engaging in Achieving approaches use either Surface or
Deep strategies to help them achieve passing grades (ACER, 2010; Biggs & Tang, 2007).
In this research, the SPQ was used to gather data that assist in understanding students’
approaches, motives, and strategies for learning. As students in the Bachelor of Education
(Primary) enter with a range of experiences and levels of academic expertise, understanding
Chapter 5: Design of the Research 91
these factors was deemed necessary in order to consider the supports that could enhance their
FYE. The SPQ was used in the Exploration Phase as a tool to understand “what’s going on
around here” (Charon, 2007, p. 194). To facilitate the administration of the SPQ, the survey
instrument Qualtrics XM
©
5
was used. The 42 items on the SPQ (Biggs, 1987) were uploaded
to Qualtrics for the participants to access. An initial invitation was sent via student email (see
Appendix A) prior to the commencement of the semester and again following the completion
of the semester. Students were also informed how to access the questionnaire through the
Bachelor of Education (Primary) learning environment online (LEO) site whereby they chose
to participate by clicking the link within the letter to participants and completing the
questionnaire (see Appendix C).
The questionnaire used a 5-point Likert-style scale, which is popular in educational
research (Likert, 1932). The following descriptors were included in the questionnaire: (5)
Always or almost always true of me, (4) Frequently true of me, (3) True of me about half the
time, (2) Sometimes true of me, and (1) Never or only rarely true of me. The benefits of closed
questions are that they are quick and easy to answer and provide consistent responses that can
be numerically quantified and analysed using a variety of statistical techniques (Cohen et al.,
2011; Creswell, 2008). The purpose for administering the SPQ twice in the semester was to
analyse the possible differences in learning approaches before and after completion of the
participants’ first semester at university. Participants were also invited to include their mother’s
maiden name and their house number in order to match their pre- and post-semester SPQ
responses while at the same time maintaining their anonymity. This assisted with knowing who
completed SPQ1 and SPQ2 and allowed for differentiation of participants. Other demographic
questions that assisted with data collection included a question regarding gender and whether
they were of recent school leaver or non-recent school leaver status. Further, it was deemed
inappropriate to ask students directly about their OP, ATAR or entry pathway. On completion
5
Qualtrics XM
©
is an online survey tool.
92 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
of the SPQ, it was evident that doing so would have added clarity to the data. As a result, this
study was focusing on all first-year students, not just those who entered under special
consideration. At the time of this research, however, data of those students who entered through
an alternative pathway were not provided to Faculty academic staff.
Semi-structured in-depth focus group interviews
Semi-structured in-depth focus group interviews are an “organised discussion” where the
researcher aims to promote ideas through discussion with the participants (Basit, 2010, p. 104).
The intention is to gather data that seek to clarify participants’ opinions and differing views on
the same topic from within a similar context and to make these available to the researcher. It is
important, therefore, that the semi-structured in-depth focus group interview questions are
relevant and easily understood by participants. It is also important that the focus group interviews
do not engage the participants in a question-and-answer response session; rather, the researcher
explains the purpose of the research and acts as a facilitator of a discussion between the
participants, occasionally asking questions or commenting, clarifying, or summing up (Basit,
2010). This approach is designed to prevent a rigid debate approach (Basit, 2010; Patton, 2002).
There are many advantages to using semi-structured in-depth focus group interviews.
While labour intensive, this type of focus group interview is still considered a cost-effective
way of collecting rich data from several people with experience in the topic under discussion.
This is the case of collecting data from first-year students. The open-ended questions designed
for this interview style assist with the flow of the organised discussion and avoid extended
periods of silence, as students consider what their response might be. Further, they assist with
flexibility, rich information, guidance, and an exploration of the phenomenon (Patton, 2002),
along with questions being designed to enable the researcher to record, in real time, written
comments that capture the attitudes or experiences of respondents (Cohen et al., 2011). Also,
open-ended questions enable sensitive issues to be addressed explicitly (Cohen et al., 2011).
Chapter 5: Design of the Research 93
Being a part of a semi-structured in-depth focus group interview engages the participants in a
social and relaxed atmosphere (Marshall & Rossman, 2014).
While these advantages are widely accepted by those who use semi-structured in-depth
focus group interviews as a data collection tool, disadvantages have been highlighted in the
literature. Patton (2002) lists the following:
•
a reduced number of questions can be covered;
•
response time for individuals is restricted;
•
the facilitator needs to have skills in managing the session;
•
minority perspectives can be silenced;
•
when focus group participants are known to each other they might feel
constrained;
•
confidentiality cannot be guaranteed;
•
it doesn’t assist in micro-analysis; and
•
it usually takes place out of the participants’ normal social context.
(p. 386)
As the participants in this study are first year education students, due consideration of each of
these disadvantages will be given. For example; where minority perspectives could be silenced,
the researcher will make sure that all participants had equal opportunity to speak and contribute
to the discussion.
The purpose of the semi-structured in-depth focus group interviews in this research was to
explore understandings and learning approaches that first-year Bachelor of Education (Primary)
students engage in while they are studying. The focus group interviews took place following the
completion of first semester. Prior to the commencement of the interviews, analysis of the SPQ
data collected at the completion of the first semester was undertaken. Conclusions drawn from
this analysis were then used to write the interview protocol for the semi-structured in-depth focus
group interviews (see Appendix D). Thirty students volunteered to take part in five semi-
94 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
structured in-depth focus group interviews, with six participants in each group. Each of the five
focus group interviews lasted approximately 1.5 hours; they were recorded and notes were taken
during the conversation, with consent from the participating students (see Appendix E). The
recordings were subsequently transcribed by the researcher to provide a rich database for analysis
(Merriam, 1998).
Semi-structured in-depth individual interviews
Using semi-structured in-depth individual interviews means that some questions and
probes can be arranged and developed in advance, particularly as a result of analysis of
previously collected and analysed data. The emerging themes from this analysis assist the
researcher to structure the semi-structured in-depth individual interviews. As the researcher is
not able to anticipate the student responses prior to or at the time of the interview, an informed
probing technique is used to assist with responses (Patton, 2002). These interview probes are
incorporated and arranged from the analysis of data collected earlier in the study. Using these
probes assists with the interviews to keep the volunteers and researcher on track and to gather
important insights into the phenomenon (O’Donoghue, 2018). Throughout this phase, cross-
checking of the data must occur, as it strengthens the trustworthiness of the findings (Patton,
2002). Once the SPQ and semi-structured in-depth focus group interview data had been
collected and analysed, the semi-structured in-depth individual interview protocol was
developed from the emerging themes (see Appendix F). With the protocol developed, all
students were invited to participate in the semi-structured in-depth individual interviews.
Initially, nine students volunteered and participated in the individual interviews. Three of the
nine were reinterviewed to go deeper to clarify data collected previously, and subsequently,
further interview protocols were developed (see Appendix G). These then formed three
additional semi-structured in-depth individual interviews, called case studies, which made up
Phase 2 Step 4 of the data collection and are presented in Chapter 5. These case studies were
included as participants agreed to be re-interviewed and the researcher believed that their stories
Chapter 5: Design of the Research 95
would make a valuable contribution to study. The 12 semi-structured in-depth individual
student interviews were held over a three-month period. All individual interviews were
recorded and transcribed by the researcher soon after they were conducted.
Following the analysis of student semi-structured in-depth individual interview data,
three non-academic staff members from the OSS were interviewed (see Appendices H and I)
once during Semester 2 to establish the appropriateness of the supports offered to students on
campus and whether or not these services were provided regularly and used accordingly by the
students. The semi-structured in-depth individual interviews were approximately half an hour
in length and made up Phase 2 Step 5 of data collection. These interviews were recorded and
transcribed by the researcher soon after the interviews were conducted. Once this process was
complete, participants had the opportunity to read and make changes if they believed the
intention of their comments was not accurately captured by their conversation at the time of the
interviews (O’Donoghue, 2018).
The discussion in this section of Chapter 4 has focused on the data collection strategies
and the timing of the collection of these data. This information is summarised in Table 4.3.
96 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
Table 4.3
Overview of Data Collection Process
Data collection
phases
Steps of data
collection and
analysis
Data collection strategies, timing and
participant numbers
Phase 1:
Exploration Phase
Step 1
SPQ1
Prior to commencement of Semester 1
150 students
Step 2
SPQ2
Following completion of Semester 1
150 students
Phase 2:
Inspection Phase
Step 3
Student semi-structured in-depth focus group
interviews
Following analysis of SPQ data
5 groups x 6 students (30 students)
Step 4
Student semi-structured in-depth individual
interviews
Following analysis of semi-structured in-
depth focus group interview data
6 students x 1 interview plus 3 students x 2
interviews (9 students, 12 interviews)
Step 5
Staff semi-structured in-depth individual
interviews
During Semester 2 following analysis of
student interview data
3 non-academic staff members
4.4 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
Data analysis entails the researcher first considering the types of data collected and then the
most appropriate methods to be employed to analyse those data. The overarching purpose of data
analysis is that it includes what has been heard, seen, and read, so you can make sense of what
you have learned (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992). This thesis employs a range of statistical analyses
for the quantitative data and constant comparative analysis for the qualitative data collected.
Chapter 5: Design of the Research 97
4.4.1 Quantitative data analysis and interpretation
In this section data entry procedures and specific techniques that were used to analyse
and interpret the data generated by the SPQ respondents are outlined. It is recommended that a
series of steps be undertaken in the preparation and testing of quantitative data (Creswell, 2008).
The first step is to “prepare and organize the data … by assembling all data, transforming it into
numeric scores, creating a data-base for computer or hand tabulation, and selecting a computer
program to use in performing statistical tests on the data” (Creswell, 2008, p. 183). The
computer program chosen for this study was SPSS
©
6
. It was chosen as it provided the best
analysis tools for all data. The next step involves “exploring and descriptively analysing the
data” using a process that “consists of two general steps (1) exploring and describing the data,
and (2) conducting statistical tests on the data” (Creswell, 2008, p. 191). Creswell (2008) also
recommends “analysing the data to test hypotheses (research questions)” (p. 195) as the third
step, however, as this study was interpretative in nature, it was not appropriate to test
hypotheses. Here it is important to select the most appropriate statistical tests. The next step is
the interpretation or “represent[ing] and summarizing the data in tables, figures and a detailed
discussion of the results” (p. 190). Creswell (2008) recommends concluding the research “by
summarizing the major results … explaining the results, noting limitations, and advancing
suggestions for future investigations” (p. 207). This study follows some of Creswell’s
recommendations.
To support the SPQ data collection, Qualtrics
©
was used. Students were invited to
participate through the Bachelor of Education (Primary) LEO site whereby they chose to
participate by clicking a link and completing the questionnaire and submitting it. These actions
indicated their consent to participate in the study. By providing all students with the same link,
anonymity was maintained. Completed surveys were downloaded in an Excel file and
transferred to SPSS
©
where the file was prepared for analyses. It is worth noting at this point
6
SPSS Version 25
©
was used for the analysis of the SPQ in this study.
98 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
that an assumption for inferential testing is that the sample is drawn from the population
randomly. The first-year Bachelor of Education (Primary) students do not represent a random
sample of the population. This immediately places any inferential statistical analysis conducted
in doubt. However, these analyses were not intended to be an end in themselves; rather, they
were used to guide the development of the semi-structured in-depth focus group interview
protocol and the subsequent collection of qualitative interview data from the Bachelor of
Education (Primary) students as a way to explore more deeply their experiences of the supports
provided by the university in their first year.
Normality of data distribution is also an assumption of inferential statistical analyses and
hence must be tested. This testing is achieved through the calculation of the skewness and
kurtosis statistics. The skewness statistic is an indicator as to the symmetry of the data
distribution, while kurtosis is an indicator as to whether data were peaked or flat relative to the
normal distribution. Skewness and kurtosis statistics between −2.0 and 2.0 are considered
acceptable indicators of normal distribution (Field, 2013; George & Mallery, 2013). In this
study, all 42 individual items presented as normally distributed, as did the scales embedded
within the questionnaire. Table 4.4 summarises the statistical properties of the SPQ.
Table 4.4
Statistical Properties of the SPQ (n = 93)
Scale
name
Cronbach’s
α
Scale
mean
Standard
deviation
Min.
statistic
Max.
statistic
Mean
correlation
Skewness
statistic
Kurtosis
statistic
Surface
.69
2.51
0.48
1.5
3.79
.32
0.25
−.45
Deep
.83
2.62
0.57
1.5
4.07
.47
0.48
−.09
Achieving
.74
2.63
0.50
1.57
4.29
.49
0.57
0.49
Important to note in Table 4.4 is that there are three scales: Surface, Deep, and Achieving.
After carefully following the instructions regarding the implementation of the SPQ, I thought
Chapter 5: Design of the Research 99
it necessary to confirm with Professor Biggs that the content of the SPQ was represented
accurately; therefore, I contacted him privately. As a result of personal communication with
Professor Biggs (October 14, 2019) his advice was to focus on these three scales by including
14 items per scale that combined items related to Motives and Strategies for each scale. Using
this recommended approach, items that relate to Motives and Strategies are nested within each
of the three scales. Upon further personal communication (December 3, 2019), Professor Biggs
informed me that none of the items had been previously reverse scored and that the percentage
responses were conducive to the students’ responses. This contact confirmed correct
implementation of the SPQ. Further, to test internal consistency reliability for each of the scales,
Cronbach’s (1951) coefficient alphas (α) were calculated, with the lowest being .69 for the scale
Surface. This was considered to reflect at least a sound internal consistency reliability as it was
substantially above the researcher’s decided minimum of .60. Item scale correlations were
conducted confirming that all items had been correctly allocated to the appropriate scales and
that all items contributed to each scale’s internal consistency reliability.
To assess the mutually exclusive dimensions of the SPQ, discriminant validity was also
identified. Table 4.4 reports the validity data for the three scales, Surface, Deep, and Achieving
approaches, using the mean correlation of each scale against the remaining scales. Such validity
confirms and provides the numbers and how they vary. The varying scales measure mutually
exclusive dimensions of the SPQ. The mutual exclusivity reinforces that the three scales were
distinct from one another. Worthy of note, in the case of this study, the closer the mean
correlation is to zero, the more distinct the scales are. For internal consistency reliability, the
desired outcome is to have items very closely related (Cohen et al., 2011) and therefore form a
scale, hence the closer the Cronbach’s alpha is to 1 the higher the reliability. To provide a
distinct outcome with discriminant validity, it is best to have each scale very different from one
another. It is evident that each scale overlaps, but this does not interfere with the structure of
the SPQ. Furthermore, the results in Table 4.4 show that the mean correlation for each scale is
100 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
low, being Surface .32, Deep .47 and Achieving .49. These mean correlations are low enough
to show independent distinct scales even though some overlap of the scales does exist.
Furthermore, these scales are distinct, meaning that theoretically the scale Surface is different
from the scales Deep and Achieving. This also supports the decision to maintain all three scales
in the SPQ (Biggs, 1987).
This study was guided by symbolic interactionism, and consistent with this theoretical
approach there are two phases in the study, Exploration and Inspection. The SPQ formed the
Exploration Phase and the analysis of the SPQ data are discussed in Chapter 5. These data also
informed the development of the semi-structured in-depth focus group interview protocol
outlined in Appendix D. The qualitative data collection using semi-structured in-depth focus
group and individual interviews formed the Inspection Phase of the study. These qualitative
data analysis and interpretation steps are now discussed.
4.4.2 Qualitative data analysis and interpretation
As with the analysis and interpretation of quantitative data, there are also several steps
for the analysis and interpretation of qualitative data. The data were transcribed following the
interviews and prepared for analyses. Part of this preparation was the coding of participant
interview data that took the following form. The code FG represents semi-structured in-depth
focus group interviews and included the student’s pseudonym name, and the order of the focus
group (Katie FG1). Similarly, Sue II denotes semi-structured in-depth individual interviews (II)
and the student’s pseudonym name. Following analysis of the first round of semi-structured in-
depth individual interviews an additional three individual interviews were planned to capture
more in-depth discussion of the themes identified in the first round of individual interviews.
Those participants who were invited to return for the second individual interviews that formed
the three in-depth case studies are represented by a coding such as Conor CC, which represents
the case studies and the student’s pseudonym name. Three non-academic staff members were
also interviewed and are represented by the staff member’s pseudonym name and using the
Chapter 5: Design of the Research 101
letter S for “staff”, followed by II denoting individual interview, therefore, Eddie SII represents
one non-academic staff member.
Constant comparative analysis was used once the transcripts were prepared. This
qualitative data analysis technique has a clearly defined process of coding that researchers using
the technique must follow. Coding highlights the process that allows data to be examined and
grouped into conceptual themes (Creswell, 2008; Lincoln & Guba, 1985). The collection of one
item of data informs the other and alerts the researcher to specific details (Merriam, 1998).
Coding is required throughout the analysis of all qualitative data and there are three major types
of coding: open, axial, and selective coding (O’Donoghue, 2018), all of which are applied in
this research, however, no coding program was used as it was determined by the researcher that
it was appropriate to manually handle all data as this format allowed the researcher to work
closely and personally with all data. Three steps were taken to verify the final themes that were
generated from the qualitative data analysis.
First, open coding is used whereby codes are identified and data are broken down to
identify categories and details with meaning. This process opened up the participants’
transcripts to find meaning in what they are reflecting on and identifying these to the researcher.
Open coding aids in the discovery of the unexpected (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). In both the focus
group interviews and the individual interviews, open coding is used so that a variety of concepts
and categories can be identified from the data. In the process, all data are first transcribed and
coded. Data are repeatedly read using an iterative set of procedures resulting in additional
questions or concepts for further clarification (Miles & Huberman, 1994).
Second, axial coding allows for initial categories involving tentative relationships with
open coded categories (O’Donoghue, 2018; Strauss & Corbin, 1998). In the Inspection Phase,
axial coding reduces the number of the original codes and in doing so, groups them together so
that they assist with identifying their connectedness (Strauss & Corbin, 1998).
102 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
Third, selective coding is a more focused level of coding as it highlights links and
integration between categories generated in the open and axial coding process. This results in
building a theory (O’Donoghue, 2018; Strauss & Corbin, 1998). It views relationships within
these categories, looks for validation, and further explores other categories to decide on further
progression and development. It is at this time that the focus on the analysis is highlighted
(Patton, 2002).
Table 4.5 provides a snapshot of the transcripts and the process used to generate codes
that were then collapsed to generate major themes from the data. Theory was developed
following this process.
Chapter 5: Design of the Research 103
Table 4.5
Examples of Transcripts, Codes and Themes
Transcript
Code
Theme
“There is no doubt a great deal of content (O Day) is
provided and I learnt a lot on the day and it assisted me to
know what was on campus and who could help me when I
needed help.” (Sue II, Phase 2, Step 4)
Orientation
Day
Transition to
university
“Trying to remember everything is difficult for students as
they are just bombarded with information. There is only so
much a student can take in on the day.” (Eddie SII, Phase
2, Step 5)
“There was way too much information, an overload and at
times it was overwhelming. It certainly scared me thinking
about what was ahead.” (Katie II, Phase 2, Step 4)
“The Mentor Program is a great concept and similar to Big
Sister I had at school when beginning high school.” (Katie
II, Phase 2, Step 4)
Mentoring
Program
“I met my mentor many times during the early stages of
uni. She was able to show me where to go for help and
made the first few weeks a little easier. I’m glad we were
encouraged to sign up during O Day.” (Sue II, Phase 2,
Step 4)
“After participating in the program as a mentee, I now
would like to join up to be a mentor ... It’s a great concept,
and despite not every mentee needing it in the end, I can
certainly see the benefits and would like to give back to
the program.” (Mary II, Phase 2, Step 4)
“It’s very independent and you don’t really have someone
telling you the whole time when things are due, what’s due
and you have to be very independent about going about
doing assignments and you don’t have a lot of time.”
(Eddie FG1, Phase 2, Step 3)
Freedom
while
studying
Student
learning
experiences
“… aren’t as many contact hours and you can fall into the
trap of thinking that there’s less work to do.” (Will FG3,
Phase 2, Step 3)
Note. O Day = Orientation Day; II = individual interview; SII = staff individual interview; FG = focus
group interview.
104 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
4.5 VERIFICATION
The verification process highlights the strengths of the research by sharing details of the
case to the reader so that all parties have access to the same material (Patton, 2002). This
recommendation has been adopted for this study. Interpretivism illuminates the story of social
interaction, and that there is value in the multiple perspectives of the “actors” in the study. The
collection and quality of data is first evident in its trustworthiness, whereby trustworthiness in
interpretive research ensures its authenticity. Case study methodology applies the concept of
trustworthiness and demonstrates it in the way the data are collected, analysed, and presented
on completion of the research (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Within this research, trustworthiness
was achieved by paying attention to its elements, being credibility, confirmability,
dependability, and transferability (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
4.5.1 Credibility
Credibility assists in the process of limiting any biases that may be portrayed by the
researcher (Hughes & Hitchcock, 1995). Further, it ensures that the research is defensible of
the researcher’s interpretations of the data collected. Credibility incorporates member checking
of data collected during interviews and confirms the researcher’s interpretation of those data
(Polit & Beck, 2004). It is also necessary to refer the themes and details back to the participants
for these to be validated by them. High levels of trust are necessary for the process to work
effectively. By following this process, the values and beliefs of the researcher are identified,
further aiding the trustworthiness of the research undertaken through participant contribution.
4.5.2 Confirmability
Confirmability refers to data interpretation and whether it can be confirmed by others.
Allowing for participant reviews of the findings establishes the trustworthiness of data
interpretation. This also allows the researcher to confirm the interpretations and explanations
generated from data analysis.
Chapter 5: Design of the Research 105
All participants were offered the opportunity to review their transcripts and the 15
participants in semi-structured in-depth individual interviews were provided the opportunity to
read and respond to the interviewer’s notes and interpretation of the meaning of their comments.
It is noted that 5 participants reviewed the transcripts. The process enabled the participants to
appreciate how their perspectives were interpreted and understood by the researcher. To this
end, it allowed them to offer suggestions on the researcher’s interpretations.
4.5.3 Dependability
Dependability is how the researcher ensures the inclusion of an audit trail and identifies
trustworthiness and dependability of the research. An audit trail involves a trail of all data, how
they were collected, coded, and analysed, and where they were stored for review. External
review was undertaken throughout the research process. The reviewers consisted of two
research supervisors who read all the necessary content, supervised the collection, coding and
analysis of data through regular meetings throughout the process of compiling the thesis. This
checking process provided a further element of trustworthiness to the research.
4.5.4 Transferability
Transferability refers to how the findings from the research may be transferred to another
context (Polit & Beck, 2004) as generalisability of the findings from this research is not
claimed. Transferability is enhanced through the accurate and definite representation of
information from within the context. Using an interpretive research design also limits the
findings of the context that aligns with the case study phenomenon (Creswell, 2008). Rather
than claim generalisability, the reader is left to make decisions about the transferability of the
findings to their own or other contexts on the basis of “fit” (Stake, 2000). This process is termed
“reader-user generalisability” (Merriam, 1998, p. 211) through “case-to-case transfer”
(Firestone, 1993, p. 16); therefore, this study does not seek to represent the wider population or
claim generalisability of the conclusions (Basit, 2010).
106 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
4.6 ETHICAL ISSUES
In order to protect the identity of the respondents, anonymity for each participant engaged
in the SPQ, semi-structured in-depth focus group interviews, and semi-structured in-depth
individual interviews was ensured through the use of codes relating to the Exploration and
Inspection Phases and steps within the process.
This research explores individuals’ perceptions of themselves and how they experience
learning within their first year at university. Ethical issues are considered based on the selection
of participants and how data are collected, analysed, and reported. “Ethical issues are respect
for democracy, respect for truth, and respect for persons” (Bassey, 1999, p. 73). These three
components encompass the protection of the participants. This can be maintained by obtaining
informed consent and outlining the role of the researcher, how data are stored, and the
confidentiality provided for participants.
The researcher’s attentiveness to democracy is evidenced in practices of participant
engagement. In considering the respect for persons, the researcher outlines the research and
seeks informed consent from the participants. Informed consent allows the participant to
participate at their own choice. In this research, consent for the SPQ was sought through the
written information letter via the LEO digital platform, whereby if the participants chose to
click the link to complete the SPQ, completed it and submitted it, then this was considered as
consent. As for the semi-structured in-depth focus group and individual interviews, letters were
signed and consent obtained at the beginning of each interview (Berg, 2004). Confidentiality
of data and their appropriate storage, along with anonymity, was provided consistent with the
university’s requirements.
Other details of the selection process cover the length of the study, the process of
confidentiality, the findings and how participants may view these findings. The appendices
contain the ethics approval letter from the ACU Human Research Ethics Committee (Appendix
Chapter 5: Design of the Research 107
J) together with the letters of information to participants (Appendices B, K, and L) and
participant consent forms (Appendices E and M).
Data collected were secured and protected in a locked filing cabinet and on the
researcher’s password-protected laptop and data USB stick, both in her home and in her office
at ACU. Consent forms and transcripts are stored in the office of the researcher as these are
hard copies and will be held for the mandated period of 5 years following the completion of the
research study. A list of participant codes is also stored in the office of the researcher, but this
is kept in a different digital folder from the raw data folder. Data collection strategies and ethical
considerations are highlighted in Table 4.6.
The researcher was known to all the participants as at the time of the research she was the
Lecturer in Charge of one of the units studied in first semester. When researchers undertake
studies as “insider members” of the community that is the subject of the research, then
uncertainties can occur (Hanson, 2013, p. 388). The role of the researcher may be seen as
ambiguous and has potential to influence the whole research process (Hanson, 2013).
Researchers in this position have reported that tension may arise between their role and the
organisation (Brew, 2010); however, this did not occur with this research as the semi-structured
in-depth focus group and individual interviews were held at the conclusion of Semester 1,
outside of the period the researcher had teaching responsibilities with the study participants.
Important to note, that the researcher may teach the students again in another year level and in
a variety of units.
108 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
Table 4.6
Data Collection Strategies and Ethical Considerations
Data collection
strategy
Ethical considerations
SPQ
Participants were emailed a link to the SPQ on Qualtrics. Consent
was included at the beginning of the SPQ (see Appendix B).
Semi-structured in-
depth focus group
interviews
Participants were read instructions of confidentiality present at the
top of the Interview Protocol (see Appendix D).
Each participant was allocated a pseudonym name, for example;
Conor with FG1 included. FG standing for focus group and the
number representing the order of the focus group.
Additional considerations included:
• Information and Consent Forms were written clearly and
concisely.
• Expectations were clearly explained.
• Students were not academically compromised by non-
participation.
• It was acceptable to withdraw at any stage without
compromise to self or effect on academic grades.
Semi-structured in-
depth individual
interviews and case
studies
Consent of the interviewee to proceed with the interview and
clarify issues of confidentiality was sought. Participants were read
instructions of confidentiality present at the top of the Interview
Protocol (see Appendices F, G, and H).
Each student participant was allocated with II, this meaning
individual interview.
Each non-academic staff participant was allocated a pseudonym
name with SII, meaning staff individual interview. Opportunity
was provided for all participants to review and modify transcripts
as relevant post interview.
Note. SPQ = Study Process Questionnaire.
4.7 LIMITATIONS AND DELIMITATIONS
This study has three limitations:
• The design for the SPQ completion relied on students following a link and completing
and submitting the questionnaire; in order to do pair samples t testing, sufficient
numbers were needed for this to occur.
Chapter 5: Design of the Research 109
• This study focused on an unstated set of assumptions about the type and scope of
supports provided by the university as reported by the participants.
• The study was undertaken by the lecturer who teaches the cohort of FY students in
the Bachelor of Education (Primary) degree and could pose as a conflict of interest
even though data were collected before and after teaching had ceased.
There are three delimitations to the study:
• The participants in this study were limited to the first-year Bachelor of Education
(Primary) students, and those who agreed to participate may not reflect the opinions
of all first-year students at ACU.
• It was intentional that academic staff members were not interviewed as it was the
views of the students about their experiences that were required to address the
research question.
• Because all students had gained entry to the Bachelor of Education (Primary) degree,
it was deemed unnecessary to ask students their entry score (OP or ATAR) or their
entry pathway.
4.8 SUMMARY
In Chapter 4 the design of the research used for the study to explore the research question
has been introduced and justified. Discussion of the theoretical framework identified that the
epistemological stance is constructionism, and the research paradigm is interpretivism with
symbolic interactionism nested within it. These decisions guided the selection of case study as
the methodology. The methods were then discussed, including the research participants and
data collection strategies. Quantitative and qualitative data analyses and interpretation were
discussed for both types of data collected. This chapter has concluded with a discussion of
verification, ethical issues, and limitations and delimitations.
110 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
Chapter 5: Presentation of Findings
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this study is to understand the way first-year Bachelor of Education
(Primary) students at ACU on the Brisbane campus experience and engage with supports
offered by the university and university life.
The purpose of Chapter 5 is to present the findings. In Chapter 4 the intended design of
the research for this study was introduced and discussed. Part of the discussion was the use of
the SPQ (Biggs, 1987). Normality of the questionnaire was assessed and reported to
demonstrate that the assumption of normality had been established. This discussion also
reported the internal consistency reliability of the SPQ (Biggs, 1987). Data collected during the
Exploration Phase of the study via the use of the SPQ are reported in Sections 5.2 and 5.3 of
this chapter and changes to the intended design are discussed at that point. The purpose of this
discussion is to allow readers of this research an insider’s view of the response to difficulties
that presented during this study. The subsequent Inspection Phase of the study, which included
the interviewing of participants through semi-structured in-depth focus group interviews
followed by semi-structured in-depth individual interviews that explored students’ experiences
of the supports offered by the university in their first year at ACU, is discussed in Sections 5.4
to 5.9. The chapter concludes with a summary of the findings in Section 5.10.
Worthy of note at this point is that given this research is interpretive, the research product
is not found but rather it is generated from the researcher’s engagement with the participants
and their perspectives. This chapter includes the researcher’s understanding of others’
understandings of the research question.
Chapter 5: Presentation of Findings 111
5.2 EXPLORATION PHASE: SPQ
In this section descriptives for each item in the SPQ as well as the statistical analyses of
the three main scales are displayed. The planned use of the SPQ as outlined in Chapter 4 was
for the first-year Bachelor of Education (Primary) students to complete the SPQ prior to the
commencement of the semester and again following completion of the semester. This would
have allowed paired samples t tests to be conducted on the individual items and scales. Only 34
students completed the SPQ prior to the commencement of their first semester. When all first-
year Bachelor of Education (Primary) students were invited to complete the SPQ following the
completion of the semester, none of the original 34 students completed the SPQ. Consequently,
a deviation from the planned use of the SPQ (Biggs, 1987) had to be accommodated. While
none of the original students completed the questionnaire at the end of the semester, a further
59 of the 150 students in the cohort did complete it, giving 93 respondents in total. It was then
decided to complete independent samples t tests on the items and scales. As a result,
descriptives as well as independent samples t tests were used to assess differences between the
perceptions of the students who completed the SPQ at the beginning of the semester (SPQ1)
compared to the perceptions of the students who completed the questionnaire at the end of the
semester (SPQ2). The two groups that participated in the SPQ1 and SPQ2 were representative
of the overall ITE student cohort and similar in their demographic profile. As the SPQ was used
in the Exploration Phase and was not intended to be an end in itself, it was deemed satisfactory
to use independent samples t testing to explore students’ perceptions as a way to inform the
development of the semi-structured in-depth focus group and individual interview protocols for
the Inspection Phase of the study. Cohen’s d was also used to measure effect size for the items
that demonstrated a statistically significant difference between the SPQ1 responses and the
SPQ2 responses. A value of 0.20 is considered to be a small effect size, 0.50 a medium effect
size, and 0.80 a large effect size (Pallant, 2016). Upon analysis of data and conclusions drawn
from it, the researcher intends to investigate certain themes, concepts and patterns of interest
112 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
further. This will occur throughout the focus groups and interviews. Prompts will be used to
extend on these (See Appendices D, F, G, H and I). Worthy of note, is that the findings for each
section will be provided in dot points to summarise the findings so that they can be taken to the
next step of analysis.
5.2.1 Analysis of individual items on the SPQ: Surface approaches
Table 5.1 lists the 14 Surface approaches items with their response proportions. This
scale is made up of seven items that focus on Motive and seven items that focus on Strategy.
There were no statistically significant differences when independent samples t tests for the
items in the Surface approaches scale were calculated. When considering the descriptive
statistic of percentage difference, of the seven Motive items, two items, 7 and 19, had a higher
percentage of students selecting response category 5 (Always or almost always true of me) prior
to commencing their first semester of study than those students who completed the SPQ2 at the
closure of their semester of study, indicated a lower level of student perception than those
students who completed the SPQ1at the commencement of the semester. For item 7, in SPQ1,
38.2% selected response category 5 indicating that I am discouraged by a poor mark on a test
and worry about how I will do on the test. This percentage was lower for the group who
completed SPQ2 to 25.5%. The initial response rate could be attributable to student stress about
prior experiences of receiving a poor mark adding extra pressure on their overall performance;
however, during the semester, this perception regarding test results changed, and this may have
been due to the feedback students were given that assisted them for future tests. However, when
SPQ1 and SPQ2 response category 4 and 5 were added together, a response rate of 82.3% is
evident. In item 13, a higher response rate of 85.3% in response categories 4 and 5 can be
calculated to identify that students perceive that whether I like it or not, I can see that further
education is for me a good way to get a well-paid and secure job.
For item 19, in SPQ1, 44.1% selected response category 5 (Always or almost always true
of me) indicating that even when I have studied hard for a test, I worry that I may not be able to
Chapter 5: Presentation of Findings 113
do well in it. This percentage was lower in SPQ2 to 37.3%. This could be attributable to students
beginning the year with prior experiences on tests influencing their perspective; however, after
one semester, the percentage was lower again, indicating that students felt more confident that
the test preparation they do will help them with their tests. Although when response category 4
and 5 are calculated for SPQ1 had a high percentage and is identified at 79.4%, indicating that
students do worry about the quality of their study.
In contrast to items where the response value for category 5 (Always or almost always
true of me) dropped between SPQ1 and SPQ2, some items identified a higher level in student
perceptions for those students who completed SPQ2. These were items 25, Lecturers should
not expect students to spend time studying material which everyone knows will not be examined,
and 37, I am at university mainly because I feel that I will be able to obtain a better job if I have
these qualifications. With item 25, in SPQ1, 32.4% selected response category 2 (Sometimes
true of me). Prior to commencing the semester, students perceived that it is important to study
more than is on the test. In contrast, students who completed SPQ2 at the end of semester
became more test focused and perceived that it was not necessary to study more material to
gain a better understanding, as the proportion of responses in this category lowered to 13.6%.
Cohen’s d = .035, indicating a small effect size between those who completed SPQ1 and those
who completed SPQ2.
114 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
Table 5.1
Surface Approaches Response Percentages
No.
Item
Response %
Motive
Time
5
4
3
2
1
1
I choose my present courses largely because of the
better professional opportunities when I graduate
rather than out of their own interest to me.
SPQ1
23.5
23.5
26.5
5.9
20.6
SPQ2
16.9
35.6
11.9
15.3
20.3
7
I am discouraged by a poor mark on a test and worry
about how I will do on the test.
SPQ1
38.2
44.1
5.9
11.8
0
SPQ2
25.4
44.1
13.6
11.9
5.1
13
Whether I like it or not, I can see that further
education is for me a good way to get a well-paid
and secure job.
SPQ1
52.9
32.4
11.8
2.9
0
SPQ2
42.4
39.0
16.9
0
1.7
19
Even when I have studied hard for a test, I worry that
I may not be able to do well in it.
SPQ1
44.1
35.3
8.8
11.8
0
SPQ2
37.3
35.6
15.3
8.5
3.4
25
Lecturers should not expect students to spend time
studying material which everyone knows will not be
examined.
SPQ1
5.9
29.4
20.6
32.4
11.8
SPQ2
15.3
25.4
37.3
13.6
8.5
31
I do not really like having to spend years studying
after leaving school but feel that the end results will
make it all worthwhile.
SPQ1
17.6
20.6
23.5
14.7
23.5
SPQ2
22.0
37.3
22.0
5.1
13.6
37
I am at university mainly because I feel that I will be
able to obtain a better job if I have these
qualifications.
SPQ1
29.4
35.3
11.8
5.9
17.6
SPQ2
39.0
32.2
20.3
5.1
3.4
Strategy
4
I think browsing around is a waste of time, so I only
study seriously what's handed out in class or in the
course outlines.
SPQ1
11.8
11.8
23.5
41.2
11.8
SPQ2
5.1
27.1
28.8
32.2
6.8
10
I learn some things by rote, going over and over
them until I know them by heart.
SPQ1
17.6
41.2
32.4
8.8
0
SPQ2
20.3
42.4
25.4
10.2
1.7
16
I tend to choose subjects with a lot of factual content
rather than theoretical kinds of subjects.
SPQ1
8.8
14.7
55.9
5.9
14.7
SPQ2
5.1
23.7
40.7
22.0
8.5
22
In studying I generally do what the lecturer says to
do; it is unnecessary to do anything extra.
SPQ1
8.8
17.6
29.4
17.6
26.5
SPQ2
1.7
27.1
44.1
18.6
8.5
28
I learn best from lecturers who work from carefully
prepared notes and outline major points neatly on the
board or use multimedia to express an idea.
SPQ1
14.7
55.9
17.6
11.8
0
SPQ2
27.1
37.3
20.3
13.6
1.7
34
I find it best to accept the statements and ideas of my
lecturers and question them only under special
circumstances.
SPQ1
8.8
29.4
38.2
23.5
0
SPQ2
3.4
33.9
45.8
16.9
0
40
I am very aware that lecturers know a lot more than I
do and so I concentrate on what they say is
important, rather than rely on my own judgements
and opinions.
SPQ1
35.3
52.9
11.8
0
0
SPQ2
27.1
42.4
25.4
5.1
0
Note. SPQ = Study Process Questionnaire.
Chapter 5: Presentation of Findings 115
For item 37, in SPQ1, 29.4% of students agreed that I am at university mainly because I
feel that I will be able to obtain a better job if I have these qualifications by selecting response
category 5 (Always or almost always true of me), and in SPQ2 this increased to 39.0%. When
the results for item 37 are compared, it is probable that students’ opinions changed over time
between SPQ1 and SPQ2 as the Cohen’s d = 0.35, indicating a small effect size. These results
indicate that students feel as though gaining a qualification and working hard will assist them
in securing a good job. Further to this, response categories 4 and 5, when combined in the SPQ1
were indicated at 64.7% and then was higher in SPQ2 with 71.2%.
Within the Strategy items (see Table 5.1), item 10, I learn some things by rote, going over
and over them until I know them by heart, and item 28, I learn best from lecturers who work
from carefully prepared notes and outline major points neatly on the board or use multimedia
to express an idea, are represented with lower percentages for response category 5 in SPQ1
than in SPQ2. For item 10 in SPQ1, 17.6% selected response category 5 (Always or almost
always true of me) indicating that the students learned some things by rote. This percentage was
slightly higher at 20.3% for those students who completed the SPQ2. This may be attributable
to them falling back on old study strategies that they have relied on in the past. When response
categories 4 and 5 are combined for item 10, there is an increase from SPQ1, being 58.2% and
SPQ2 62.7%.
For item 28, in SPQ1, 14.7% selected response category 5 (Always or almost always true
of me); the percentage reached a higher level of 27.1% for those students who completed SPQ2.
This may be attributable to the fact that students appreciated that lecturers outlined the main
points for them to learn by rote but also used different modes of presentation that may assist
their learning. Although, when response category 4 and 5 are combined for SPQ, a high figure
of 70.6% is calculated as opposed to those students who completed the SPQ2 where a response
rate was lower at 64.4%.
116 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
For item 40 I am very aware that lecturers know a lot more than I do so I concentrate on
what they say is important, rather than rely on my own judgements and opinions in when
response rates are combine in category 4 and 5, there is the largest percentage calculated at
88.02% for SPQ1 and this then lowers for those students who completed SPQ2 and is 69.5%.
5.2.2 Analysis of individual items on the SPQ: Deep approaches
No statistically significant differences between SPQ1 and SPQ2 were recorded when
independent samples t tests were calculated for the items in the Deep approaches scale
displayed in Table 5.2. This scale is made up of seven items under Motive and seven items
under Strategy. Two of the seven Motive items, item 8, While I realise that truth is forever
changing as knowledge is increasing, I feel driven to discover what appears to me to be the
truth at this time, and item 26, I usually become increasingly interested in my work the more I
do it, showed a higher level in percentage of students selecting response category 5 (Always or
almost always true of me) from SPQ1 to SPQ2. For item 8, in SPQ1 a total of 70.6% selected
response category 5 (Always or almost always true of me) or category 4 (Frequently true of
me). The combined percentages for response categories 4 and 5 declined in SPQ2 to 45.8%.
This change could be attributable to students’ failing to attain Deep approaches, Motives as the
semester progressed.
For item 26, in SPQ1 the total percentage across response categories 5 (Always or almost
always true of me) and 4 (Frequently true of me) was 73.5%. The percentage was lowered at
55.9% for those who completed SPQ2. This could be attributable to SPQ1 capturing students’
positive intention at the beginning of Semester 1 of showing increasing interest in their work
throughout the semester. After Semester 1, students were still showing interest in their work,
but not at the same level.
While there is a higher level of perception in relation to the Deep approaches scale items
within Motive, two items stand out where students’ perceptions have decreased: item 2, I find
Chapter 5: Presentation of Findings 117
that at times studying gives me a feeling of deep personal satisfaction, and item 14, I feel that
any topic can be very interesting once I put effort into it. For item 2, in SPQ1, 61.8% selected
response category 5 (Always or almost always true of me) or category 4 (Frequently true of
me). This percentage was lower at 39% for those who completed SPQ2. When the difference
between the item 2 responses in SPQ1 and SPQ2 was compared using Cohen’s d, a small effect
size of 0.37 was recorded.
118 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
Table 5.2
Deep Approaches Response Percentages
No.
Item
Response %
Motive
Time
5
4
3
2
1
2
I find that at times studying gives me a feeling of
deep personal satisfaction.
SPQ1
11.8
50.0
14.7
20.6
2.9
SPQ2
8.5
30.5
27.1
27.1
6.8
8
While I realise that truth is forever changing as
knowledge is increasing, I feel driven to discover
what appears to me to be the truth at this time.
SPQ1
11.8
58.8
20.6
8.8
0
SPQ2
13.6
32.2
45.8
6.8
1.7
14
I feel that any topic can be very interesting once I
put effort into it.
SPQ1
23.5
38.2
23.5
14.7
0
SPQ2
16.9
28.8
32.2
20.3
1.7
20
I find that writing an assignment can at times grab
my interest, so that I will continue with it and not get
distracted.
SPQ1
14.7
26.5
38.2
11.8
8.8
SPQ2
8.5
20.3
30.5
25.4
15.3
26
I usually become increasingly interested in my work
the more I do it.
SPQ1
8.8
64.7
14.7
8.8
2.9
SPQ2
16.9
39.0
28.8
11.9
3.4
32
I believe strongly that my main aim in life is to
discover what I believe are the best rules to live by
and to act strictly in accordance with them.
SPQ1
23.5
35.3
11.8
17.6
11.8
SPQ2
16.9
30.5
42.4
8.5
1.7
38
My studies have changed my views about such
things as politics, my religion, and my philosophy of
life.
SPQ1
2.9
41.2
29.4
17.6
8.8
SPQ2
15.3
32.2
27.1
11.9
13.6
Strategy
5
While I am studying, I often think of real-life
situations to which the material that I am learning
would be useful.
SPQ1
35.3
35.3
14.7
11.8
2.9
SPQ2
25.4
33.9
27.1
8.5
5.1
11
In reading new material I often find that I am
continually reminded of material I already know and
see that old material in a new way now.
SPQ1
8.8
41.2
35.3
14.7
0
SPQ2
11.9
32.2
47.5
8.5
0
17
I find that I have to do enough work on a topic so
that I can form my own point of view before I am
satisfied.
SPQ1
11.8
47.1
32.4
5.9
2.9
SPQ2
16.9
33.9
32.2
16.9
0
23
I try to relate what I have learned in one subject to
that in another.
SPQ1
17.6
47.1
20.6
14.7
0
SPQ2
16.9
35.6
30.5
13.6
3.4
29
I find most new topics interesting and often spend
extra time trying to obtain more information about
them.
SPQ1
2.9
35.3
47.1
14.7
0
SPQ2
6.8
27.1
39.0
25.4
1.7
35
I spend my free time finding out more about
interesting topics which I have discussed in different
classes.
SPQ1
5.9
11.8
26.5
38.2
17.6
SPQ2
5.1
20.3
30.5
28.8
15.3
41
I try to relate new material, as I am reading it, to
what I already know on that topic.
SPQ1
23.5
47.1
26.5
2.9
0
SPQ2
11.9
45.8
32.2
10.2
0
Note. SPQ = Study Process Questionnaire.
Chapter 5: Presentation of Findings 119
For item 14, students were quite positive in SPQ1 where 61.7% selected response
category 5 (Always or almost always true of me) or category 4 (Frequently true of me) indicating
that they felt that any topic could be very interesting once they put effort into it; however, after
one semester this was lower at 45.7% for those who completed SPQ2. When the effect size for
this change for item 14 from SPQ1 to SPQ2 was calculated using Cohen’s d a small effect size
of 0.31 was recorded.
When looking at the items in Strategy of the Deep approaches scale, one item is notable
for the change in response proportions for the total of response category 5 (Always or almost
always true of me) and 4 (Frequently true of me) from SPQ1 to SPQ2. This is item 35, I spend
my free time finding out more about interesting topics which I have discussed in different
classes. For item 35, students were quite low in SPQ1, with a combined response proportion
for categories 5 and 4 of 17.7%. However, for the students who completed SPQ2, this
proportion had a higher level at 25.4%. It could be argued that students are using strategic
approaches to support their study as they engage with other students.
5.2.3 Analysis of individual items on the SPQ: Achieving approaches
Independent samples t tests were conducted on all items in the Achieving approaches
scale displayed in Table 5.3 to compare the perceptions of students commencing university
(SPQ1) with those of students after completion of the first semester (SPQ2). This scale is made
up of seven items under Motive and seven items under Strategy. Table 5.3 shows that items 3,
9, and 39 within the Motive items, and items 12 and 18 within the Strategy items, were
statistically significantly different between SPQ1 and SPQ2.
120 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
Table 5.3
Achieving Approaches Response Percentages
No.
Item
Response %
Motive
Time
5
4
3
2
1
3
**I want top grades in most or all of my courses so
that I will be able to select from among the best
positions when I graduate.
SPQ1
58.8
32.4
8.8
0
0
SPQ2
44.1
25.4
18.6
10.2
1.7
9
**I have a strong desire to do my best in all my
studies.
SPQ1
67.6
29.4
2.9
0
0
SPQ2
39.0
33.9
27.1
0
0
15
I would see myself as an ambitious person; I want to
get to the top in whatever I do.
SPQ1
26.5
38.2
23.5
8.8
2.9
SPQ2
28.8
30.5
28.8
10.2
1.7
21
If it came to the point, I would be prepared to
sacrifice my immediate popularity with my
fellow students for success in my studies and
subsequent career.
SPQ1
26.5
35.3
26.5
8.8
2.9
SPQ2
16.9
39.0
23.7
15.3
5.1
27
One of the most important considerations in
choosing a course is whether or not I will be able to
get top marks in it.
SPQ1
5.9
14.7
26.5
20.6
32.4
SPQ2
5.1
22.0
27.1
25.4
20.3
33
I see getting high grades as a kind of game, and I
want to be one of the winners; I like to be better than
most others.
SPQ1
5.9
23.5
32.4
17.6
20.6
SPQ2
6.8
30.5
32.2
11.9
18.6
39
**I believe that society is based on competition and
schools, colleges and universities should reflect this.
SPQ1
2.9
14.7
23.5
23.6
35.3
SPQ2
8.5
20.3
45.8
10.2
15.3
Strategy
6
I summarize suggested readings and include these as
part of my notes on a topic.
SPQ1
14.7
29.4
41.2
14.7
0
SPQ2
8.5
27.1
40.7
13.6
10.2
12
**I try to work consistently throughout the term and
review regularly when the exams are close.
SPQ1
29.4
58.8
11.8
0
0
SPQ2
18.6
42.4
30.5
8.5
0
18
**I try to do all of my assignments as soon as
possible after they are given out.
SPQ1
5.9
44.1
26.5
17.6
5.9
SPQ2
5.1
18.6
32.2
32.2
11.9
24
After a lecture I reread my notes to make sure they
are readable and that I understand them.
SPQ1
8.8
29.4
17.6
41.2
2.9
SPQ2
10.2
18.6
28.8
30.5
11.9
30
I test myself on important topics until I understand
them completely.
SPQ1
2.9
55.9
20.6
17.6
2.9
SPQ2
5.1
30.5
33.9
23.7
6.8
36
I make a point of looking at some of the suggested
readings that go with the lectures.
SPQ1
8.8
47.1
29.4
11.8
2.9
SPQ2
10.2
25.4
42.4
22.0
0
42
I keep well organised notes for most subjects.
SPQ1
14.7
58.8
14.7
11.8
0
SPQ2
25.4
32.2
25.4
16.9
0
Note. SPQ = Study Process Questionnaire.
** p < .02.
Chapter 5: Presentation of Findings 121
For item 3, I want top grades in most or all of my courses so that I will be able to select
from among the best positions when I graduate, there was a statistically significant difference
in scores for SPQ1 (M = 4.5, SD = .66) and SPQ2 (M = 4.0, SD = .43); t(90.76) = −2.74,
p = .007 (two tailed). Cohen’s d = .55, representing a medium effect size. Analysing the
response percentages for item 3, in SPQ1, 58.8% selected response category 5 (Always or
almost always true of me); however, for those who completed SPQ2 only 44.1% believed they
wanted top grades. Worthy of note is the change in percentage in response category 3 (True of
me about half the time), which was a higher level from 8.8% in SPQ1 to 18.6% in SPQ2.
For item 9, I have a strong desire to do my best in all my studies, there was a statistically
significant difference in scores for SPQ1 (M = 4.65, SD = .54) and SPQ2 (M = 4.12, SD = .81);
t(88.8) = −3.75, p = .000 (two tailed). Cohen’s d = .76, representing a medium effect size.
Analysing the response percentages for item 9, in SPQ1, 67.6% selected response category 5
(Always or almost always true of me); however, this percentage lowered dramatically to 39.9%
for those students who completed SPQ2. Students expressed a keenness to do well early in their
degree, and then perhaps realised after one semester of study that doing their best was not a
reality.
For item 39, I believe that society is based on competition and schools, colleges and
universities should reflect this, there was a statistically significant difference in scores for SPQ1
(M = 2.26, SD = 1.2) and SPQ2 (M = 2.97, SD = 1.1); t(91) = 2.83, p = .006 (two tailed).
Cohen’s d = .60, representing a medium effect size. Interestingly, the percentage of students
who agreed with this statement by selecting response category 5 (Always or almost always true
of me) for item 39 was low, with only 2.9% selecting this option in SPQ1 and 8.5% in SPQ2.
This result could have been influenced by students potentially feeling that university should not
be competitive to enter, as reflected in the relatively high percentage who disagreed with the
statement by selecting response category 1 (Never or only rarely true of me), with 35.3% in
SPQ1 and 15.3% in SPQ2.
122 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
For item 12, I try to work consistently throughout the term and review regularly when the
exams are close, there was a statistically significant difference in scores for SPQ1 (M = 4.18,
SD = .62) and SPQ2 (M = 3.71, SD = .87); t(86.5) = −2.9, p = .004 (two tailed). Cohen’s
d = .53, representing a medium effect size. Analysing the response percentages for item 12, in
SPQ1 88.2% selected category 5 (Always or almost always true of me) or 4 (Frequently true of
me); however, this combined percentage was lower at to 61% for those who completed SPQ2.
Students began the semester intending to work consistently, but by the end of the semester they
reported they had not been as consistent.
For item 18, I try to do all of my assignments as soon as possible after they are given out,
there was a statistically significant difference in scores for SPQ1 (M = 3.26, SD = 1.0) and
SPQ2 (M = 2.73, SD = 1.0); t(91) = −.23, p = .02 (two tailed). Cohen’s d = .60, representing a
medium effect size. Analysing the percentage responses for item 18 in SPQ1, only 5.9% of
students selected response category 5 (Always or almost always true of me). Even after
Semester 1 was complete, the percentage remained similar at 5.1% in SPQ2, which indicates
that students from both groups did not feel they needed to work on their assignments
immediately. Less than 50% were interested in working on their assignments immediately and
this lowered over the semester.
5.3 COMPARISONS OF SPQ SCORES ACCORDING TO STUDENT
CHARACTERISTICS
In this section, the comparisons of the SPQ scores are reported according to three different
grouping variables: (a) time the questionnaire was completed (i.e., SPQ1 or SPQ2); (b) gender;
and (c) recent school leaver or non-recent school leaver status. It was understood that these three
characteristics may influence first-year students’ perceptions of their learning, their use of
strategies, and their motives at university. As standard parametric tests assume that the sample
was drawn from a random population, and the sample in this study was purposive because they
Chapter 5: Presentation of Findings 123
were the students available to the researcher on the Brisbane campus of ACU, statistical analysis
for significance was used as a guide to develop the interview protocol for the semi-structured in-
depth focus group and individual interviews. Cohen’s d (1988), which is the difference in group
means per pooled group standard deviation, was used to measure effect size. It is proposed that a
value of 0.20 is a small effect size, 0.50 medium, and 0.80 large (Pallant, 2016). Graphs are
provided to illustrate mean scale scores for each comparison as these graphs offer a visual
representation of the different response perceptions depending on respondent characteristics.
5.3.1 SPQ scores according to the time the SPQ was administered
Figure 5.1 shows the mean scale scores for SPQ results according to the grouping variable
of time. A noteworthy feature of this figure is that there is almost no difference between SPQ1
and SPQ2 mean scale scores. When Cohen’s d was calculated to measure effect size it was less
than small for Surface approaches, being .12, but classified as small for Deep approaches, being
.26, and for Achieving approaches, being .32. There was no statistically significant difference
between SPQ1 and SPQ2 for each of the three scales according to the time of administration.
Figure 5.1. Mean scores for SPQ scales according to time (n = 93).
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
Surface Deep Achieving
Scale anchors 1
-5
Mean scores for SPQ scales according to time
SPQ1 SPQ2
124 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
5.3.2 SPQ scores according to gender
Figure 5.2 shows the mean scale scores according to gender. Important to note is that
seven students did not identify their gender when completing the SPQ and as a result this figure
reflects the responses from 26 males and 60 females. A noteworthy feature of Figure 5.2 is the
gap between male and female responses for the Achieving approaches scale. Also, male mean
scale scores were higher than female mean scale scores for the Surface approaches scale and
lower for the Deep and Achieving approaches scales. Cohen’s d was calculated to measure
effect size, with the Surface approaches scale being .24 indicating a small effect size and the
Deep approaches scale being .46 also indicating a small effect size. No statistically significant
differences were recorded for the Deep approaches and Surface approaches scales. Cohen’s d
was also calculated to measure the effect size for the Achieving approaches scale with a result
of .46 indicating a small effect size. Despite the small effect size, there was a statistically
significant difference in scores for the Achieving scale between males (M = 3.17, SD = .58) and
females (M = 3.41, SD = .45); t(84) = 2.057, p = .043 (two tailed).
Figure 5.2. Mean scores for SPQ scales according to gender (females n = 60; males n = 26).
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
Surface Deep Achieving
Scale anchors 1
-5
Mean scores for SPQ scales according to gender
Male Female
Chapter 5: Presentation of Findings 125
5.3.3 SPQ scores according to recent school leavers and non-recent school leavers
Figure 5.3 shows the mean scale scores according to respondent characteristics of recent
school leaver and non-recent school leaver. Recent school leavers are those who access
university immediately upon completion of secondary school (Baik et al., 2015), while non-
recent school leavers are those who are not graduating directly from school (Richardson &
Watt, 2016). Important to note is that seven students did not identify if they were a recent school
leaver or a non-recent school leaver when completing the SPQ and as a result this figure reflects
the responses from 50 recent school leavers and 36 non-recent school leavers. A noteworthy
feature of Figure 5.3 is the gap between school leavers and non-recent school leavers for both
the Deep approaches and the Achieving approaches scales. When Cohen’s d was calculated to
measure effect size for the Surface approaches scale it was .24, which is a small effect size; for
the Deep approaches scale it was .56, which indicates a medium effect size; and for the
Achieving approaches scale it was .27, which indicates a small effect size.
Independent samples t tests were conducted to compare the mean scale scores for recent
school leavers and non-recent school leavers for each of the three scales. There was a
statistically significant difference in scores for the Deep approaches scale between recent
school leavers (M = 3.2, SD = .45) and non-recent school leavers (M = 3.5, SD = .55);
t(84) = 2.56, p = .012 (two tailed).
126 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
Figure 5.3. Mean scores for SPQ scales according to recent school leavers (n = 50) and non-recent
school leavers (n = 36).
5.3.4 Findings following SPQ analyses
The findings from the analysis of the SPQ include Surface, Deep and Achieving
approaches and are outlined below.
Surface approaches
• Some students agreed that it was not necessary to spend extra time studying material
which everyone knew would not be examined. In contrast, students who completed
the SPQ2 at the end of semester thought that it was necessary to study more material
to gain a better understanding of the content of the unit.
• There was an increase after one semester in student perceptions that obtaining a
degree would assist them to get a job.
Deep approaches
• Some students were less satisfied by their study after one semester.
• Some students were less interested in putting in effort to enjoy a topic if it did not
immediately grab their attention.
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
Surface Deep Achieving
Scale anchors 1
-5
Mean scores for SPQ scales according to recent school
leavers and non-recent school leavers
Recent school leavers Non-recent school leavers
Chapter 5: Presentation of Findings 127
• A statistically significant independent samples t test for recent and non-recent school
leavers showed the non-recent school leavers’ mean scale score was higher than that
of the recent school leavers for the Deep approaches scale.
Achieving approaches
• Interest in achieving top grades declined over the semester.
• Desire to do well in studies declined from the beginning to the end of the semester.
• Perception that university should be competitive declined from the beginning of the
semester to the end.
• There was a decline in student intentions to work consistently over the semester.
• There was a decline over the semester in student propensity to commence assignment
work immediately.
• A statistically significant independent samples t test showed male students had a
higher mean scale score than that of females for the Surface approaches scale.
These findings informed the Inspection Phase of the study.
5.4 INSPECTION PHASE: SEMI-STRUCTURED IN-DEPTH FOCUS GROUP
INTERVIEWS AND SEMI-STRUCTURED IN-DEPTH INDIVIDUAL
INTERVIEWS
The SPQ data informed the development of the interview protocols for the semi-
structured in-depth focus group interviews. These protocols can be seen in Appendix D. The
focus group interviews were analysed and themes generated. These themes then informed the
generation of the semi-structured in-depth individual interview protocols (see Appendices F to
H). In some cases, the individual interviews added more depth to the theme under discussion,
and in other cases, new themes were generated from the analysis of the individual interview
data. Four overarching themes were generated through the analysis across all interview data:
Transition supports on campus, Student learning experiences, Student identity, and
128 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
Engagement factors at university. These are discussed in Sections 5.5 to 5.8 respectively, with
each theme forming a section in the chapter. In Section 5.9, the semi-structured in-depth
individual interviews that formed the participant case studies are discussed, followed by Section
5.10, findings generated across all phases.
5.5 TRANSITION SUPPORTS ON CAMPUS
In order to appreciate the themes generated from data analysis, it is appropriate to explain
ACU initiatives provided for students in their first year at university, as they were the focus of
discussion during the interviews. Three non-academic staff reported that student experience
begins with support during their transition to university. This is planned for the students through
three strategies: Orientation Day, Mentoring Program, and the OSS (including the Academic
Skills Unit), all of which are designed to assist in building successful university experiences.
Each of these strategies is discussed in the following subsections.
5.5.1 Orientation Day as a support
The first aspect that was a focus of the theme Transition supports on campus was
Orientation Day as a support. This discussion considers how students perceive Orientation Day
and how it endeavours to encourage participation into university life. On this day, students are
encouraged to engage in the university social and educational activities provided. It also offers
opportunities for students to meet the university personnel who are responsible for enhancing
their university journey. The chair of the Brisbane Orientation Day Committee and coordinator
of Orientation Day expressed this opinion:
The aim of Orientation is specifically to orientate the students to allow them the
opportunity to gain the core information they need to begin university. Students
will meet staff members who will be teaching them and they are informed about
the services the university offers. (Eddie SI, Phase 2, Step 5)
Chapter 5: Presentation of Findings 129
Students are also introduced to the wider community of the university during Orientation
Day. They meet representatives from the Student Centre, sporting clubs and societies. With the
inclusion of these groups, Orientation Day provides a window for students to connect with other
students who outline how important Orientation is for the new students. One of the OSS staff
members stated:
Orientation Day provides opportunities to harness their energy and get them
involved in university life outside of classes. If there was no Orientation Day to
do this, you would spend the rest of the year chasing them to join the clubs. You
can actually see the disconnect as the weeks go by and the realities of uni takes
over. (Maxine SI, Phase 2, Step 5)
Students in the semi-structured in-depth focus group interviews also reported Orientation
Day was important:
I learnt things during Orientation Day, like there are Academic Skills, and I used
these in first semester to get my skills squared away ... to make sure I was on the
right track with assessments. (Andy FG5, Phase 2, Step 3)
I remember everything from Orientation Day. I was like a sponge because I was
scared I would miss something ... I wrote down notes about Academic Skills and
where to find them. I got a lot of information from the day, but also from the
website. I went to every session I could on Orientation Day. (Sally FG5, Phase 2,
Step 3)
When further prompted during the semi-structured in-depth individual interviews,
students also indicated that it was also stressful, as there is excessive information offered on
one day. Students expressed their opinions with comments such as: “I was a little overwhelmed
with all the stuff I had to remember” (Sue II, Phase 2, Step 4). There was consensus on this
perspective, with another student agreeing that at times: “There was way too much information,
an overload and at times it was overwhelming. It certainly scared me thinking about what was
ahead” (Katie II, Phase 2, Step 4). Students further supported this opinion, with the following
comment typical of comments made by students during their interviews:
130 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
There is no doubt a great deal of content is provided and I learnt a lot on the day
and it assisted me to know what was on campus and who could help me when I
needed help. (Sue II, Phase 2, Step 4)
When these perspectives were presented to the staff, they argued that all students are
encouraged to access the ACU Orientation website to clarify and validate information that they
may have missed while attending Orientation Day. In comments such as the following, it was
argued that students who did not attend Orientation Day were encouraged to visit the ACU
Orientation Day website before commencing university. This is highlighted by comments from
two staff members. One staff member from Academic Skills stated:
There’s the online aspect of Orientation and preparation for students and the post
Orientation provides avenues for students who have missed Orientation, and they
can access information as quickly as possible ... it’s really about the transition and
students aren’t going to finish Orientation, and that’s it, they’re orientated. There’s
further support for at least six weeks. It’s really just the beginning. (Martha SI,
Phase 2, Step 5)
The Chair of the Orientation Day Committee confirmed this perspective:
Trying to remember everything is difficult for students as they are just bombarded
with information. There is only so much a student can take in on the day, so that’s
why there is the online option as well. (Eddie SI, Phase 2, Step 5)
Staff members presented the perspective that students’ feedback is listened to and that as
feedback comes directly from the students on Orientation Day it is taken into consideration for
future planning; however, the Orientation Day Chair stated that: “There is no formal feedback
at this time and it is something to consider for the coming years” (Eddie SI, Phase 2, Step 5).
He stated that the feedback from the students comes via the staff members on the committee,
who all report back to the committee once Orientation Day is over.
Chapter 5: Presentation of Findings 131
5.5.2 Mentoring Program as a support
The second aspect that was a focus of the theme Transition supports on campus was the
Mentoring Program as a support. During the semi-structured in-depth focus group interviews,
mentoring was not a prominent issue in discussion; however, when mentoring was introduced
as a discussion point during the individual interviews, students communicated that the “Mentor
Program is a great concept and similar to the Big Sister I had at school when beginning high
school” (Katie II, Phase 2, Step 4). Another student who was interviewed confirmed this:
“Being a part of the program helped me feel included and assisted with the transition from
school to university” (Bridget II, Phase 2, Step 4).
Students in the semi-structured in-depth individual interviews discussed the Mentoring
Program largely in positive terms. They outlined that the program and mentors are advised by
the Faculty Coordinator to offer simple, yet effective advice to the mentees. In discussing the
types of services a mentor could provide, their examples included how to put money on the
student card, where the library and education faculty are located, where the student centre is
located, and where to buy a coffee. Typical of the comments were two students’ comments
made during their individual interviews:
I met my mentor many times during the early stages of uni. She was able to show
me where to go for help and made the first few weeks a little easier. I’m glad we
were encouraged to sign up during O day. (Sue II, Phase 2, Step 4)
After participating in the program as a mentee and learning where things were
early, I now would like to join up to be a mentor ... It’s a great concept and I can
certainly see the benefits and would like to give back to the program. (Mary II,
Phase 2, Step 4)
The students also pointed out that it is not the mentors’ job to assist with academic writing
or assessment but to guide the mentee where to seek assistance. Typical of these comments was
the following:
132 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
I enjoyed meeting my mentor and developing a friendship with them. I understood
that they were not to assist me with my assignments and if I needed help, they
showed me where to go. (Mary II, Phases 2, Step 4)
It was evident from student comments that the relationship did not work all the time, with
a few students not meeting their mentors: “My mentor contacted me and I told her that I was
fine and I was settling into the routine quite well and didn’t need the support offered” (Anna II,
Phase 2, Step 4). Another student confirmed this: “I signed up for the program, but didn’t end
up needing anyone, as I met people who helped me. I think it’s a good program though” (Katie
II, Phase 2, Step 4).
5.5.3 OSS and Academic Skills Unit as supports
The third aspect that was a focus of the theme Transition supports on campus was the
work of the OSS and Academic Skills Unit as supports. The Academic Skills staff member
interviewed outlined that the initial introduction to Academic Skills occurs during Orientation
Day, when students are introduced to the Academic Skills staff members and advised of classes
that are held in support of first-year students. The purpose of this is to advise students that these
services exist. The Academic Skills staff member outlined that Academic Skills staff also attend
some first-year classes during the initial weeks of university to remind students again of the
services they provide and to invite them to attend workshops programmed during the semester.
During the semi-structured in-depth focus group interviews, several students agreed on
the value of such visits to classes and how the support from Academic Skills staff attending
early in the semester is useful. One such student commented: “Even though I am still learning
stuff, I really liked that the Academic Skills people bothered to come to class after Orientation
Day. It refreshed my memory that they existed” (Sally FG5, Phase 2, Step 3).
The topic of Academic Skills was also relevant during the semi-structured in-depth
individual interviews. Another student added: “This assists to break down the barriers early in
Chapter 5: Presentation of Findings 133
first year” (Sue II, Phase 2, Step 4). One student confirmed this further and, in particular,
commented on the workshops they attended to improve academic writing:
Even though I was informed about Academic Skill[s] during Orientation Day and
attended some workshops, it was great that they came to classes, as this assisted
me as a reminder to use them and what’s on offer and they can help with your
work ... I thought, “Well if this is being offered, why not take advantage of it?” ...
I’ve used them a lot and it’s definitely helped. The workshops are really useful as
well. (Sue II, Phase 2, Step 4)
One comment from the Academic Skills staff member confirmed these visits: “The staff are
invited to attend tutorials in week three in an Education class to offer guidance on writing
assignments, particularly for that unit” (Martha SI, Phase 2, Step 5).
In contrast, some students identified that they did not use the service of Academic Skills
personnel. They argued that because Academic Skills officers were constantly busy and
students’ timetables clashed with workshops or drop-in sessions that were being offered,
students did not know where to seek assistance. Students recounted during the interviews the
problems they experienced; for example, one student stated that on numerous occasions “I tried
to make an appointment to go and see them, but it just never worked for me. Perhaps they could
have weekend sessions as well” (Bridget II, Phase 2, Step 4).
First-year students also identified that they were reluctant to attend Academic Skills
workshops because they thought they would be perceived as struggling, stating that “I don’t
attend as I don’t want to be perceived as dumb and that I needed help because I entered uni off
a different pathway” (Rob II, Phase 2, Step 4). This perception plagued many students as they
discussed the “stigma” attached to attending these sessions. However, student perceptions
changed once they realised the service was for everyone:
I now realise that attending Academic Skills is for everyone. Those who want to
receive a HD [High Distinction] and for those who wish to simply receive help.
It’s a great service and I will use it in the future. (Mary II, Phase 2, Step 4)
134 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
The Academic Skills staff member was able to add to these points by contributing:
When students attend, especially first years who have recently left school, they
quickly realise that it’s different to school, where their day is planned for them
and managed for them … they come in looking for tips and certainly to start off
to how they can manage their semester. Students who come to Academic Skills
do so for various reasons. To begin with, they might come for technical
administrative aspects, things like LEO [online learning environment system] and
email. They also come with high stress levels in the first weeks, as they’ve
received all their unit outlines, it’s all in front of them and they are completely
overwhelmed. We advise them to just focus on one week at a time. (Martha SI,
Phase 2, Step 5)
This Academic Skills staff member believed that it is important for first-year students to
focus “on one week at a time because they are inundated with the rigour of university study and
assessment items” (Martha SI, Phase 2, Step 5). The staff member stated during the interview
that in the first few weeks of university, students are challenged to submit some of their
assessment items for grading. These assessment items vary from a group presentation, whereby
they are grouped with people they have only just met, to a short reflection based on a reading
from their unit. While support occurs in class, students are also encouraged to attend workshops
that focus on assistance with these assessment items, time management, and study strategies.
The Academic Skills staff member confirmed that additional workshops are offered
throughout the semester and involve time management and reading strategies. The staff member
interviewed identified that these workshops are lodged on the ACU website, along with
individual and group consultation opportunities. These are offered in week one and then again
in week four. Workshops are provided for essay and academic writing. “These workshops are
very busy. We have at least 30 students in each workshop and they are all repeated again in
week four, five, and six, several times during the day” (Martha SI, Phase 2, Step 5). After
approximately week six of the semester, the number of workshops decrease and students are
encouraged to book one-on-one appointments or to use the drop-in service provided. These can
Chapter 5: Presentation of Findings 135
be used to gain further guidance with writing, such as APA formatting and assignment design.
Academics often write feedback on assignments and make a recommendation for students to
seek Academic Skills support if they believe their writing could improve or if they wish to seek
an improved grade. This is evident from the interview with the Academic Skills staff member:
Students come to us and say, “my lecturer recommended that I come to see you
for guidance”. They do expect us to look at the content, but we say, “No, we can’t.
But I can help with your structure, referencing or your language choice.” It could
even be exam preparation, because students get overwhelmed by the amount of
reading ... we give them ideas about how to be strategic in their approach to
reading. When their grades improve, they come back and show us. (Martha SI,
Phase 2, Step 5)
Orientation Day, Mentoring Program, and the OSS (including the Academic Skills Unit),
have been discussed all of which are designed to assist in building successful university
experiences. The findings from these sub themes will now be identified.
5.5.4 Findings from the theme Transition supports on campus
The following findings about transition supports on campus emerged from the interview
data:
• Orientation Day assists students during the transition phase of their university life and
for students it is just the beginning of a learning journey. Students understand that the
people with whom they engage are willing to assist them. This is the beginning of
students committing themselves to study and university discipline.
• For those students involved in the Mentoring Program, the assistance offered to them
during Orientation Day is very beneficial and for some mentees they wish to continue
as a mentor.
• The OSS offers workshops and drop-in sessions for all students with the expectation
that they will attend. OSS staff believe that assistance with assessment and academic
writing is essential for students to succeed; however, some students feel that there is
a stigma attached to attending for support.
136 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
• Some students find it difficult to get an appointment with OSS and have suggested
that they offer weekend Academic Skills sessions as well.
5.6 STUDENT LEARNING EXPERIENCES
The theme of Student learning experiences was generated as a theme initially from the
SPQ data as students referred to their learning experiences throughout the questionnaire. Some
of the items in the SPQ were also identified as important, which also assisted in the structure of
the interview protocols. The theme was then investigated further in the semi-structured in-depth
focus group interviews and later confirmed or extended by the semi-structured in-depth
individual interviews. There are four aspects to this theme: freedom while studying, peer
networking and diverse social groups, student study habits and strategies, and online learning.
5.6.1 Freedom while studying
The first aspect that was the focus of the theme Student learning experiences was freedom
while studying. This aspect was important for the students during their interviews as they
associated university life with increased freedom. At the same time, they also recognised that
they are expected to take personal responsibility for their study. Students were surprised at the
flexibility university offers and that they are in control of their own study patterns, their
attendance and progress. They saw that their success was dependent on their motivation to learn
and the effort they put into their studies. A comment typical of this perspective is the following
during the semi-structured in-depth focus group interviews:
It’s very independent and you don’t really have someone telling you the whole
time when things are due, what’s due, and you have to be very independent about
going about doing assignments and you don’t have a lot of time. (Eddie FG1,
Phase 2, Step 3)
During the focus group interviews, this was a topic of conversation, and students were
surprised that they have freedom to choose their own classes and whether they attend these
Chapter 5: Presentation of Findings 137
classes throughout the semester. This new responsibility contrasts with their more structured
high school experience, as one interviewee stated:
I really enjoyed uni first semester … it was a big change from school. I’d get to
school and everyone was on my back to do this, do that. Then at uni it’s all about
my own motivation and I found it much easier. (Ben FG1, Phase 2, Step 3)
This student saw being in control of their own learning as important. He was motivated to take
charge of his study to succeed and realised he preferred to do this himself, as opposed to being
“pushed” as was the case while he was at school. He argued that this freedom actually “assisted
his learning” (Ben FG1, Phase 2, Step 3). The number of contact hours and the volume of
expected work was also discussed. There “aren’t as many contact hours as school and you can
fall into the trap of thinking that there’s less work to do, but I know there isn’t” (Will FG3, Phase
2, Step 3).
During the semi-structured in-depth individual interviews students were prompted
further, and they also commented about the specific contact hours per semester and that it is
their responsibility to fully engage during those contact hours, which are set out in their unit
outlines. One student was very accurate about the requirements, stating: “I know that I am
expected to engage in at least 150 hours per unit. That includes attending tutorials, lectures and
doing all the readings. That seems like a lot” (Aidan II, Phase 2, Step 4).
In addition to the number of expected contact hours, another important idea was generated
by students during the individual interviews, being the feeling that they could “get lost in the
crowd” (June II, Phase 2, Step 4). Students tried to overcome this feeling by making friends as
a way to alleviate their sense of being at a loss. They were able to do this in the small classes
they attended, which encouraged meaningful communication. While still feeling the freedom,
students felt part of the university community because they were known to staff and other
students. This comment from a student explains this phenomenon:
I noticed the tutors know me because I have had a lot of contact with them because
of assignments coming up … at the start I felt like you know … just another body
138 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
in the room, but towards the end of the semester I have felt that I have been noticed
and also by my peers. I wasn’t feeling lost anymore, which was a nice feeling.
(Mary II, Phase 2, Step 4)
Talking about this issue, a student confirmed that “it’s important to be recognised by your peers
and the staff who teach you because it assists in professional and peer friendship networking”
(Conor II, Phase 2, Step 4).
5.6.2 Peer networking and diverse social groups
The second aspect that was a focus of the theme Student learning experiences was peer
networking and diverse social groups. Many of the students identified that these groups are
made up of students from cohorts of non-recent school leavers, recent school leavers, and like-
minded students who are at university to learn. During the semi-structured in-depth focus group
interviews, peer networking and diverse social groups was not a prominent discussion point;
however, the topic was introduced during the individual interviews where it was evident that
the students were passionate about discussing these groups in a one-to-one situation.
Some students agreed that they form social groups to assist with their independent and
collaborative learning. Students claimed that they access these groups to assist with
assignments, discuss unit content and share ideas about what they are learning. One student
interviewed identified that:
I try to schedule meetings with people when I’m on campus. Anyone can come
along and anyone who hasn’t done their homework can come and we just talk
about how we are and what we did. We work on things together ... we book a room
in the library. (Conor II, Phase 2, Step 4)
Other students confirmed the importance of forming these groups, with one indicating:
“I’ve got so many different groups ... It’s good because I hear different points of view; that’s
what I like about it. I have mature-aged people and school leavers all coming together to share
their ideas” (Katie II, Phase 2, Step 4). Further, these students believed that forming these social
Chapter 5: Presentation of Findings 139
groups benefits their study habits and understandings of the content of the units they are
studying. Students frequently identified that the support they experienced from other students
assisted in creating a sense of community for them. They confirmed that support is especially
important in shared experiences outside of tutorials and lectures. They highlighted that learning
not only takes place in the classroom, but also when they feel safe and comfortable in their
surroundings and where students feel a sense of belonging: For example, one student said:
We’ve got quite a few people in our group. Some that I’ll see every single time
I’m here at uni and we’ve even met up outside of uni so they’re more than just
study buddies. You definitely need it because as well as coming here to study, it
is also a social thing and feels like a real community of learners. Yeah, we’ve got
quite a broad group of people. We’re all different ages, all come from different
backgrounds. It’s good, like I really enjoy my group. (Sue II, Phase 2, Step 4)
The majority of students interviewed agreed that working with peers and having friends
alleviated the stress and made university more manageable, particularly at busy times
throughout the semester, with one student summing up this perspective: “By the time these busy
times arrive in the semester, most of the friendship groups are forming or have formed, so it’s
good to get in early” (Sue II, Phase 2, Step 4).
While most of the students wanted large friendship groups and saw the benefits of having
lots of friends with which to collaborate, some students interviewed needed fewer friends and
talked about making one or two friends at university in the first few weeks as being influential
in assisting students’ decisions to stay at university and continue their studies. These students
suggested they faced added difficulties on top of not forming friendships, and this may have
detrimental effects on their likelihood of engaging in class. Overall, students confirmed that
friendships are formed through casual conversations in class and students end up working with
these people and forming a bond. A student confirmed this through the following comment:
You quickly become friends with them because you find they are really interested
in terms of the same beliefs, maybe opinions, and you can just approach someone
140 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
and just say “hi” and become fast friends. Because of this, it helped me to stay at
uni and not to quit. (Rob II, Phase 2, Step 4)
Another student argued the point that to assist him with the whole idea of university and
creating friendship groups to support him, he quickly established that he “could always rely on
my peers for support” (Aidan II, Phase 2, Step 4). In stark contrast, one participant commented
how forming peer groups was “not a priority” (Bridget II, Phase 2, Step 4) as they had friends
outside of university and did not need extra friends on top of the commitment required for being
successful at university. This student stated: “My lifestyle is very different to others, and it is
easier for me to separate the two worlds.” In saying that, she confirmed that:
I am independent on that respect ... family and university are the priority for me.
I don’t need friends at uni, I come here to study, and I leave. I’ve got too much
happening outside of uni to bother with that. (Bridget II, Phase 2, Step 4)
Moreover, some students found it difficult to “keep the peace” (Sue II, Phase 2, Step 4) with
their “outside friends” and stated that:
I am at a different stage in my life and now just focused on becoming a teacher.
For 12 weeks, I study and work, then I can go out with my friends in between
semesters … it’s taken a while for them to realise how serious I am. (Sue II, Phase
2, Step 4)
Most students expressed the importance of forming peer networking groups as these assist
them with their study. Students understood that if they had the support of their peers that
university becomes a little easier to handle.
5.6.3 Student study habits and strategies
The third aspect that was the focus of the theme Student learning experiences was student
study habits and strategies. This was discussed by students as important for their success.
Students understand that they all enter university with prior knowledge and study experience,
be it through school or work environments. The OSS including the Academic Skills Unit (see
Section 5.5.3) at ACU encourages new students to attend workshops to assist with developing
Chapter 5: Presentation of Findings 141
new and sophisticated study habits. Many students made comments during the semi-structured
in-depth focus group interviews regarding what works for them. Typical were the following:
So, I use a few different strategies. I always do pre-reading so I can more easily
understand my lectures and then I only have to take extra things from the lecture
instead of trying to understand the whole lecture. I do set myself somewhat of a
timetable, but I am very flexible. That’s kind of where I’m at. (Kate FG3, Phase
2, Step 3)
I don’t really have a study strategy as such … Procrastination was my favourite
thing but other than that it’s probably the easiest way I’ve found to do it. (Conor
FG3, Phase 2, Step 3)
Some students revealed that they work better under pressure and leave things “until the
last minute” (Eddie FG1, Phase 2, Step 3). This is confirmed through the following comment:
So, I work a lot, so I try and get other people to tell me when things are due. I rely
on a lot of my friends at uni to keep me up to date, as these guys know. But I try
my hardest of what I can do, even if I have to do it the night before, I always will
stay up later and make sure it’s to the best of my standards that I would like it to
be. (Eddie FG1 Phase 2, Step 3)
Other students were a little more relaxed when trying to develop study habits. This comment is
confirmed by the following student:
Oh yes. Sometimes I have a bit of a break and don’t do anything but I’m enjoying
the “no responsibility” time. (Aidan FG3, Phase 2, Step 3)
The OSS staff member made several recommendations about what study habits tend to
work for students:
Habits such as listening in class, going over notes after class, preparing a study
timetable, looking at content on LEO prior to the lecture, pre-reading and
highlighting notes. Any of these are useful strategies. (Martha SI, Phase 2, Step 4)
A common view among the students during the semi-structured in-depth individual
interviews was that being organised was an excellent study habit. Students tend to do this using
a timetable that is designed to tell them when assessment is due and how much extra time they
142 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
should be spending on keeping up with their study outside of classes. One student confirmed this
and stated that they “organise a personal timetable to help me study, and I don’t sway from the
organised times and use spare time to study. I’m very organised” (Katie II, Phase 2, Step 4).
Students also confirmed that they make the most of their time at university, and during
breaks they tend to complete work and use the time they have to work on assignments; however,
some students find that they can get distracted and, therefore, work is less productive than at
home. They confirmed this through comments such as “I would like to establish some good study
habits, but right now I don’t have any effective ones to use” (Aidan II, Phase 2, Step 4).
Regardless of which habit or strategy students used, they realised that it is important to
keep motivated and self-reflect on what is working for them as individuals. A wide spectrum
of perspectives was encountered during the interviews, with another student noting that when
they are studying, “The more I put in, the more I get out of it. Just passing is not good enough”
(Bridget II, Phase 2, Step 4). While some said they like “completing assignments bit by bit”
(Aidan II, Phase 2, Step 4) and in doing so, they complete the assignment thoughtfully and at a
better pace, other students suggested that they “try not to over think and this helps break the
assignment down and in no time I have finished the essay” (Bridget II, Phase 2, Step 4). It is
clear that there are many different habits/strategies that students use to assist with their learning
at university. One student concluded with the following comment:
I do a lot more highlighting … so before I would actually sit with the book and I
would write all my notes … but it was just taking way too long … so I write maybe
headings or major points and then I will highlight other things that I think I might
need to go back to … so I still read the whole article, but more strategic about
what I write down. (Katie II, Phase 2, Step 4)
Many students expressed their thoughts on the significance of developing effective study
habits and strategies early in their degree as these can be taken into each semester to support
their learning. Students also noted that Academic skills were a service offered by the university
and the staff are available to support every student regardless of their academic achievement.
Chapter 5: Presentation of Findings 143
5.6.4 Online learning
The fourth aspect that was the focus of the theme Student learning experiences was online
learning. Access to online learning was important for students, but worthy of note is that the
first-year Bachelor of Education (Primary) students have face-to-face learning and do not
experience fully online learning. During the semi-structured in-depth focus group interviews
some students spoke with unease about potential study completed fully online. This is evident
in the following comment from one student:
I didn’t sign up for online. There is no rapport with the lecturer. I hope I don’t
have any as you don’t get that face-to-face attention. I’ve been told that there is
some online study. You don’t get the instant return of email if staff are not on
campus or they are interstate. If you have a problem, you don’t hear back
immediately. (Geoff FG1, Phase 2, Step 3)
This perspective was taken up with the students during the semi-structured in-depth
individual interviews. One student discussed the prospect of “fully online” (Bridget II, Phase
2, Step 4) units; however, other students pointed out that they experience “online learning which
in this instance is whether the lectures are recorded, and class content is available on LEO”
(Aidan II, Phase 2, Step 4). LEO is known as learning environment online which is the learning
platform students engage with for their unit content. Many students identified that even though
they attend their lectures, they can take advantage of the lecture recordings by listening to them
online. “I can review the content and listen to it again. This, for me reinforces the material … I
can take notes, stop the lecture and can listen at my own leisure” (Sue II, Phase 2, Step 4).
Another positive outcome of the lectures being recorded for students is highlighted by a
comment “that there is limited chatter when listening to the recording as this can be very
distracting” (Katie II, Phase 2, Step 4). When discussing preference for online or attendance
mode of lectures, some students identified that “not all lectures are recorded, which does not
assist with balancing work, study, and life” (Katie II, Phase 2, Step 4). On the other hand, some
144 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
students argued that they want to get what their university fees are paying for: “I pay for
attendance, so I want to go to listen” (Bridget II, Phase 2, Step 4).
Most students indicate that they prefer to attend on campus classes as opposed to online
as that is what they intentionally enrolled in. Student experiences included the sub themes of
freedom whilst studying, peer networking and diverse groups, student study habits and
strategies and online learning. It is from these sub themes that the following findings are
identified.
5.6.5 Findings from the theme Student learning experiences
The following findings about student learning experiences emerged from the interview
data:
• Most students enjoy the freedom that university life brings but identify that
developing friendship groups early in the semester is important for them to fully
engage with their study.
• Being a member of a diverse range of study and social groups invites alternative
perspectives to be heard, promoting a deeper level of understanding and engagement
with course material.
• Working to a timetable means that students are organised well in advance allowing
their friendship groups to have focused discussion on their study.
• There are students within the cohort who take time off, rely on others to keep them
informed, and then need to stay up late to get assignments finished.
• Students do not want to be taught via the fully online mode.
5.7 STUDENT IDENTITY
The theme of Student identity was generated as a theme initially from the SPQ data as in
responding to the questionnaire items, the students referred to some of their perceptions of
Chapter 5: Presentation of Findings 145
themselves. The theme was then also investigated further in the semi-structured in-depth focus
group interviews and later confirmed or extended by the semi-structured in-depth individual
interviews. Five aspects of the theme were generated: student expectations of first year, sense
of belonging, university is a full-time job, voice of the non-recent school leaver, and time
management.
5.7.1 Student expectations of first year
The first aspect that was the focus of the theme Student identity was student expectations
of first year. Many students interviewed in the semi-structured in-depth focus group interviews
believed that individual students had a range of expectations and many agreed that they had
commenced an important journey in preparation for a teaching career. This is confirmed
through these responses: “I’ve enjoyed uni so far. It is harder than what I [had] expected” (Rob
FG1, Phase 2, Step 3); and “I don’t think I knew what to expect, but I want to be a teacher, so
this is the right decision for me” (Anna FG5, Phase 2, Step 3). For many students, entrance into
the Bachelor of Education (Primary) degree as a first-year student is a “new and confronting
experience” (Adam FG2, Phase 2, Step 3) and students frequently identified what they thought
their expectations of attending university would be, even though they differed. A variety of
perspectives were further expressed:
My expectations of uni were, it was going to be hard, but I’m sure I can do it, but
I didn’t realise it would be so hectic and crazy. I definitely had high expectations
and did not expect it to be a walk in the park. (Sue FG2, Phase 2, Step 3)
Another student reflected on her previous experiences:
I had done half a year [of] online tertiary education before I came to university, so
I had an idea of how to structure my time and my days, but it was very different
being on campus to the online style of learning, where everything was available
at your fingertips basically. That has helped me ease into it and then the library,
all the staff were fantastic there, so that kind of completed that transition for me.
(Kate FG3, Phase 2, Step 3)
146 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
In contrast, some students entered the university journey holding more casual
expectations. This perception is appropriately illustrated through the following comment:
I’m not putting too much pressure on myself, I don’t particularly have too many
expectations. I’m a mature-aged student. I guess I didn’t really know what to
expect either, but most of it’s been pretty easy I guess so far. (Adam FG2, Phase
2, Step 3)
Students discussed the quality of their university outcomes and their abilities, especially
when their high schooling was not of a high standard:
Academically there’s a lack of self-belief in myself from previous schooling and
all of sudden I’ve come to university as an adult and I’m actually doing well … at
the beginning of the year, I had a panic attack about how I might not do so well
this year, but everything is as I expected. (Anna FG5, Phase 2, Step 3)
This perception seems to have started in high school where many students were told how
difficult university was going to be. One student stated that “teachers at school told me how
hard it was going to be, so I sort of had expectations of what it was” (Liam FG2, Phase 2, Step
3). This student further elaborated on how she was concerned about whether attending
university was the correct decision for her but once here, was pleasantly surprised:
My initial expectations have been exceeded, as I now know that this uni kind of
supports you a little bit more. It’s a bit more structured I think. And I wasn’t sure
whether or not I could fit uni into my life. But yeah I can. (Liam FG2, Phase 2,
Step 3)
Not all students transitioned from school to university as easily, and in fact many reflected
on their previous attempts at university and drew from past experiences, which in turn assisted
them with their expectations of this new journey in their lives, as one student expressed:
I spent last year doing a bridging course at CQU [Central Queensland University],
so I had a pretty good idea, it is almost identical to this except the workload is,
well, I kind of did expect it, but you don’t know until you get it, the workload is
huge and it’s manageable. So, I guess it’s pretty much everything I expected and
I’m enjoying it, although it has not been easy at all. (John FG3, Phase 2, Step 3)
Chapter 5: Presentation of Findings 147
This theme of Student expectations of first year was taken to the semi-structured in-depth
individual interviews, where some students identified that they felt well prepared for university
life: “I have tried university before, so I have a bit of an idea on what to expect” (Rob II, Phase
2, Step 4), while others suggested that “I don’t feel I am as prepared as I should be, but I’m
prepared to give it a go nonetheless” (Anna II, Phase 2, Step 4).
Prior to commencing university, students reflected on whether or not they were capable
of or prepared to undertake study and often elaborated on the fact that they were questioning
their abilities and were not sure if they could actually go ahead and do it. Students confirmed
that along with their expectations of university came trepidation and acknowledged the value
of preparation:
I have actually done a fair bit of research before I came to uni, because it’s quite
daunting … because I knew I would not know how to do a lot of things. … So I
had looked at a few uni websites, about how to write essays, different information
you can find through their websites to prepare myself, but I needed that for the
confidence … I didn’t think that I was going to be able to do it. (Katie II, Phase 2,
Step 4)
In their accounts of the events surrounding their self-doubt and questioning their self-
efficacy, students considered that they would struggle with the expectations of university and
concluded, “this does not help with the learning process” (Bridget II, Phase 2, Step 4). As
highlighted by another student: “It makes it harder to take charge of your study and strive to do
the best when self-doubt creeps in” (June II, Phase 2, Step 4). A student confirmed that they
were continually questioning their own self-worth with the following comment:
One of the biggest things so far is I’m noticing it’s not my inability to do it that’s
making it hard, it’s my own self-doubt and my own questioning about things. I’ll
get an assignment done and then keep looking at it and go “oh this is wrong”.
That’s the hardest part for me, just getting over my own insecurities I think.
(Bridget II, Phase 2, Step 4)
148 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
The majority of students expressed their satisfaction with what they expected university
to be. Students understood that they were faced with new surroundings and new people and did
so by being engaged with a positive attitude.
5.7.2 Sense of belonging
The second aspect that was a focus of the theme Student identity was sense of belonging.
This aspect of the students’ responses was not generated during the semi-structured in-depth
focus group interviews but was prominent within the semi-structured in-depth individual
interviews. Students believed that in most cases, university is a big adjustment, not only
adjusting personally: “I need to treat university like a job, so I attend 9 to 5, even if I don’t have
classes” (Conor II, Phase 2, Step 4); academically: “It’s a big change from school, but I’m sure
I will manage with the work” (Bridget II, Phase 2, Step 4); and socially: “I’m not just a number
or face in the crowd. I want to be part of the bigger group and make friends” (Mary II, Phase 2,
Step 4), but also adjusting to the cultural aspect of university staff: “It’s understanding the
dynamics of how the lecturers teach, especially if they come from different cultures and I don’t
understand what they are saying” (Conor II, Phase 2, Step 4).
At times, students identified that they became overwhelmed with these adjustments by
failing to establish positive relationships because they struggled to adapt to their new
surroundings. Students established in the interviews that developing a sense of belonging
becomes increasingly difficult as there is a diverse range of students who attend university and
enter with differing family backgrounds, interests, work and social experiences that at times are
not connected to their university experience:
I found that there are so many different personalities and I sometimes sit back and
assess the situation to see who I can form friendships with. This is difficult at
times. It can take me a while to feel as if I belong. (Mary II, Phase 2, Step 4)
Students did indicate that they felt welcomed by staff and other students were friendly
towards them, which assisted with their sense of belonging and their learning. For many
Chapter 5: Presentation of Findings 149
students, initially, making friends was a struggle, but once barriers were removed, students
realised all students experienced similar concerns; however, as the semester progressed, some
students indicated in the interviews that they struggled to be heard and felt isolated at times.
Students, particularly non-recent school leavers, found it difficult to be acknowledged in tutorial
groups:
If I’m right up front about it, as a mature-aged student, I find that we are
potentially dismissed a bit. … I like to engage when I’m in tutorials so I’m
probably one of the first to put my hand up. Even if I’m not chosen, I feel like it’s
“Yes, okay we know what you think but who else thinks something?” … I did not
feel valued and felt isolated … my experience at that moment is feeling like my
points aren’t valid. (Bridget II, Phase 2, Step 4)
This statement identifies a phenomenon experienced by at least one non-recent school
leaver. This student believed that as a non-recent school leaver she had been neglected by
university personnel, making her feel as if she was “not worthy” of the university place she was
given. She indicated that, at first, she was reluctant to talk to lecturers, which had a negative
influence on her enthusiasm and motivation. Moreover, the student perceived non-recent school
leavers as a group were, at times, intentionally ignored. Consequently, she believed her opinions
were undervalued and stated that “I am here to learn and my answers should be validated”
(Bridget II, Phase 2, Step 4). She further commented: “I chose ACU because of its mission and
religious beliefs. The mission says that all students be treated with respect and experience equal
validation and acceptance” (Bridget II, Phase 2, Step 4). She noted that receiving validation
assisted with learning, which meant she should be academically and personally motivated by
staff, through her participation in class. This student argued that when derogatory comments
are delivered publicly, students can experience humiliation and are likely to prematurely
terminate studies. She supported her beliefs through this comment:
I’ve come back to uni at my age. So it’s a combination of proving this to myself,
I can do this and achieve this. It’s those first steps of being accepted. It’s your
tutor telling you: “You’re doing a good job.” It’s the validation that you are
150 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
capable and committed. I’m not here for a holiday. I’m here to work and to achieve
high grades. … I’m here to learn and my answers should be validated. I felt I
wanted to quit, because I wasn’t getting that. (Bridget II, Phase 2, Step 4)
Receiving validation early in the semester allowed the students to feel welcomed and
secure in their decision about attending university and to move on from always seeking that
clarity. It also offered the guidance and the acknowledgement of being able to take their study
into their own hands and not requiring validation constantly from the lecturer. This, in fact,
assisted students to be more in control of their learning responsibilities. Typical of this view is
the following student comment: “The learning experiences in class were engaging and I felt as
though I had a voice after a while” (Bridget II, Phase 2, Step 4).
A sense of belonging for many first-year students is imperative. The idea of knowing that
they are individually supported and are assisted to engage in class is an essential aspect to
university life.
5.7.3 University is a full-time job
The third aspect that was a focus of the theme Student identity was that university is a
full-time job. In the semi-structured in-depth focus group interviews students reported that they
perceived attending university as their job and treated it in that manner. Students felt they
needed to put 100% effort into their studies if they were to succeed in their first year and their
degree in the long term. In several cases students felt that they had given up a great deal, in
terms of their previous full-time job, to follow their goal of becoming teachers. In order to take
on full-time study, their goal was prioritised such that they were “treating university as a full-
time job” (Will FG3, Phase 2, Step 3).
Students also reported that they were very serious about university and thought it best to
attend university 40 hours per week, as they had done at their previous job. They expressed that
the time spent at university and the effort they put in makes a difference to the outcomes in the
long run:
Chapter 5: Presentation of Findings 151
I applied the same principles I’ve always adopted at university; I just treat it as a
job, 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. every day and if I need to do more time in the library, I stay
until 7 p.m. or 8 p.m. (Aidan FG3, Phase 2, Step 3)
The discussion was continued in the semi-structured in-depth individual interviews,
where one student reported that he was supported through sponsorship of his sporting career
and was able to focus completely on his study and not work outside of university: “Yes, I am
lucky as I don’t need to work. I am supported by my sponsors, so basically, it’s uni, training
and competitions” (Conor II, Phase 2, Step 4).
Beyond the discussions of the highly motivated, the reality, however, is that many of the
students expressed that they struggled to manage their study and work commitments. Students
provided insights into the reality that they chose to work outside of university, and in many
cases, this was an imperative that they work either part-time or full-time to support themselves.
A comment from one student supports this perspective: “I couldn’t survive if I didn’t work. I
need to pay the bills and eat. It’s quite simple really” (Aidan II, Phase 2, Step 4).
Treating university as a full-time job was highlighted by several participants. It was
important for them to engage in their studies at a level that they felt that they were participating
100% of their time.
5.7.4 Voice of the non-recent school leaver
The fourth aspect that was a focus of the theme Student identity was the voice of the non-
recent school leaver. The non-recent school leavers’ voice was “loud” in the interviews as they
represented approximately half of the proportion of students who volunteered for the semi-
structured in-depth focus group and individual interviews. Comments from these students
during the focus group interviews exemplified that they had left a previous place of
employment, many of which were stressful, to take on study, and that full-time study now
provided them with “a peaceful lovely life, with limited responsibility compared to my previous
life” (Ash FG5, Phase 2, Step 3).
152 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
Another student responded as follows:
I spent 12 years in business development and sales management. That was down
in Sydney. I worked in the events and exhibition industry doing that. And I guess
I just got sick of it and decided to go for a career change. I don’t think it’s unusual
these days for people to go through a career change and I had the opportunity, so
I thought “why not?” Teaching was also something that I [had] always
contemplated. (Adam FG2, Phase 2, Step 3)
The discussion was important for many of the non-recent school leavers in the semi-
structured in-depth individual interviews as they explained that they had already studied at
another university, having not completed that degree, with one saying “I haven’t studied for 12
years, I was in recruitment and felt I wanted to do teaching for a long time, so I took the plunge
and enrolled” (Katie II, Phase 2, Step 4).
The students interviewed noted that they believe they take ownership of their study as
they had made a career change and made the decision to become teachers. These students made
it clear in the interviews that they are now self-motivated because “attending university after
school wasn’t an option as my OP wasn’t good enough, so I earned money and worked full-
time” (Katie II, Phase 2, Step 4), providing an alternative pathway to university. Other students
commented that they came from stressful work environments with large corporations, were
self-employed, or had worked overseas. A comment from one student in their interview
confirmed this notion:
I lived and worked in Italy teaching English for several years. I fell into this job
… This helped my pathway, as it cemented that there was nothing else I wanted
to do. I came back home and applied for uni and got in, first preference and first
round offer. I was so excited. (Sue II, Phase 2, Step 4)
Students further reported that making these large changes in their lives by returning to
university was something that was important to them as this decision was usually for
themselves, although one student identified that “I am doing this for my family, so when my
children grow up I have a career that I will be proud of and I can show them that hard work
Chapter 5: Presentation of Findings 153
pays off” (Bridget II, Phase 2, Step 4). These students understand the commitment that is
required of them, as some have left full-time employment to focus on full-time study. One
student confirmed this: “This leaves us with only one income, so I need to treat this very
seriously” (Bridget II, Phase 2, Step 4). For these students, juggling a career change and
returning to full-time study invites considerable commitment and self-management.
Interestingly, the non-recent school leavers identified as approximately half of the cohort
involved in this research. It is important to understand their perceptions of first year and how
their student identity is formed throughout the initial stages of their university experience.
5.7.5 Time management
The fifth aspect that was a focus of the theme Student identity was time management.
Time management was important for all students interviewed as they had to balance work, life,
and study to be successful at university. Most of the students identified that time management
was something that they understood they must engage with if they were to succeed at university;
however, some found it difficult. Typical of this response from the semi-structured in-depth
focus group interview was the following: “University rules my life … the balance of everything
is the biggest negative … it comes down to time management, but sometimes I do find it hard”
(Bridget FG2, Phase 2, Step 3).
Other first-year students in the semi-structured in-depth individual interviews indicated
that they struggled with time management as well; however, as they progressed in their degree,
they became more accustomed to the length of time some assessment items took and tried to
develop good time management skills to assist them. They were also getting better at factoring
in all the on-campus activities, with one student indicating “I use a mobile app with my
timetable on it, so I know when and where I need to be” (Aidan II, Phase 2, Step 4). Other
students talked of spreading their workload across the semester: “If I put all my assessments on
a schedule, then I can see when I need to be working towards those deadlines” (Anna II, Phase
154 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
2, Step 4). Another student responded: “Time management equips and assists me to handle the
stress of university, my job and life in general” (Mary II, Phase 2, Step 4).
There were other students who acknowledged that they needed help and sought support:
I went and saw Academic Skills to help me with time management. They helped
me to review how I was studying, how to improve my time management … instead
of spending 60 hours a week reading and wasting my time. (Katie II, Phase 2, Step
4)
The Academic Skills staff also reiterated that they help students with time management:
[We] offer sessions for the students to assist with time management; these sessions
could include setting long- and short-term plans and identifying and prioritising
what needs to be completed in the semester and setting a time of events to assist
with knowing when assessments are due. (Martha SI, Phase 2, Step 4)
This staff member commented further:
It is important to keep a realistic pattern of study and to set a schedule … and that
using time constructively and efficiently is a skill all students should develop
throughout their university degree. It will assist them for their future when they
are teaching. (Martha SI, Phase 2, Step 4)
Student identity has been discussed with the inclusion of student expectations of
first year, sense of belonging, university is a full-time job, voice of the non-recent school
leaver, and time management. It is from these that findings below will be outlined.
5.7.6 Findings from the theme Student identity
The following findings about student identity emerged from the interview data:
• Many students have entered university with low entry scores or through alternative
pathways. For these students, self-doubt is plaguing their progress as they perceive
that university study is going to be hard, with many preparing for it by undertaking
courses prior to starting or doing their own course of preparation.
Chapter 5: Presentation of Findings 155
• Feeling a sense of belonging early in first year is important for students because if this
does not happen it can be detrimental to fitting in and the student can become “lost in
the crowd”.
• Time management is important for all students, with non-recent school leavers
treating their study like a full-time job allowing their time management skills from
previous employment to assist with being prepared, while school leavers use time
management apps to support them.
5.8 ENGAGEMENT FACTORS AT UNIVERSITY
The theme of Engagement factors at university was generated as a theme initially from
the SPQ data as students referred in the questionnaire to what engagement strategies they prefer.
The theme was investigated further in the semi-structured in-depth focus group interviews and
later confirmed or extended by the semi-structured in-depth individual interviews. Students
reported during the interviews that at the beginning of their degree they were given access to
the Course Map outlining what units were in their degree, specifically, those in Semester 1.
Drawing on the Course Map, they identified that they must choose four compulsory units per
semester if they are studying full-time. All the students interviewed were enrolled in full-time
study; therefore, they confirmed that the units they undertook in Semester 1 were the following:
Children’s Literature for Literacy, Indigenous Cultures and People, Science and Technology
for Early Childhood and Primary Teachers 1, and Contexts for Learning and Development.
Three aspects of the theme were generated: engagement in and outside of class; student
perspectives of assessment in units, and lecturers’ feedback and support.
5.8.1 Engagement in and outside of class
The first aspect that was a focus of the theme Engagement factors at university was
engagement in and outside of class. During the semi-structured in-depth focus group interviews,
students discussed the importance of being engaged at university and how the university expects
156 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
attendance in order to achieve such engagement. However, some students argued that they were
too busy to attend, while others argued that
the university expects me to attend at least 80% of classes during the semester,
but if I don’t see anyone doing anything about it, it’s my choice I guess. I do like
it if the lectures and tutes [tutorials] are interesting. That gives me a reason to
attend. (Rob FG1, Phase 2, Step 3)
Even though this student expressed that staff do not follow up with students when their
attendance and engagement is poor, another confirmed that in one class in first semester, one
teacher
made me do extra work if I missed three or more tutes. It was explained to me that
it wasn’t punishment as such, it was to make sure I am getting the most out of the
content and to assist with reaching the learning outcomes of the unit. (Ben FG1,
Phase 2, Step 3)
Some students expressed negative views on engagement in class, which surfaced during
the focus group interviews. Students stated that “if I’m not engaged, then I believe attending is
pointless” (Conor FG3, Phase 2, Step 3). This student confirmed that
the teacher made it very difficult; difficult to understand; conducted badly; when
slides read and no elaboration, what’s the point? You don’t get the whole story. I
enjoy participation and being productive. I want to be engaged with interesting
content and activities. (Conor FG3, Phase 2, Step 3)
Another student commented that
all lecturers are different. It’s much better when they don’t present verbatim [from
their notes]. What’s the point of attending if they are just reading off the slides?
You don’t have to be a doctor to do that. I can do that at home. I want engaging
strategies, more visual than just slides, putting things into context that I can relate
to, to get the bigger picture. (Cath FG2, Phase 2, Step 3)
One student throughout his focus group interview did show some signs of empathy for
the lecturer:
Chapter 5: Presentation of Findings 157
I felt sorry for the lecturer as I just think that she came in a bit late and the whole
subject seemed a bit unorganised. Maybe she didn’t have a lot of time before the
semester started. I found it hard to keep on top of figuring out where they are going
with the subject. The teacher was a no show on occasions which seemed
unprofessional to me and others. (Will FG3, Phase 2, Step 3)
In contrast to these negative statements, students expressed many positive views on
engagement. One student commented that “one major motivator in class is definitely interactive
engagement” (Conor II, Phase 2, Step 4). Another student confirmed this engagement in class
through the following statement:
Classes are hands on ... lectures are good, they pile information at you and you’ve
to know all that. … I don’t like going to tutes where you sit around ... I like to role
play, imagine you are the child, look at what you are doing physically, teach it
like you are in a classroom. (Sue II, Phase 2, Step 4)
Students also felt that engagement at the university level can occur outside of class,
particularly when it is a smaller campus. This issue was taken to the semi-structured in-depth
individual interviews, where one student said: “Hopefully the staff get to know you … Actually,
one lecturer called me by my name in the second week and I was happily surprised. This made
me feel welcomed and helped with developing a relationship with them” (Mary II, Phase 2,
Step 3). Other students noted that engagement occurred outside of classes because lecturers
offer “drop-in” (June II, Phase 2, Step 4) times and some have an “open-door policy where I
can just go and chat” (Rob II, Phase, Step 4). Students also considered that attending classes
assists with student engagement:
There are plenty of people that don’t attend; how do they expect to be engaged
when they are not present? I get more out of it when you’re in class and all classes
are important to attend. … I find them more interactive than listening to the
recording. (Conor II, Phase 2, Step 4)
However, another student made the following comment:
158 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
It seems non-attendance of lectures and tutorials is because how some classes are
conducted and how busy students are and how they need to allocate their time to
other things outside of university. (Aidan II, Phase 2, Step 3)
Students acknowledged that all lecturers are different and have different teaching
behaviours that they employ to engage students; however, one student reported that when
“lecturers are disorganised and at times do not show up to classes, then this becomes very
frustrating and proves to me that the lecturers are not interested in my learning, and therefore,
there’s no way I will be engaged” (Aidan II, Phase 2, Step 4). Because students felt that
engagement was a major aspect of their classes, they also thought that lecturers should
practice what they preach, as we are in training to become teachers. They are the
best role model we have at this time, so not showing up and not following the unit
schedule is not a good thing. I show up and I want to be taught. (Katie II, Phase 2,
Step 4)
Regardless of whether students are engaging with their peers or with their lecturers,
students perceive that engaging in and outside of class is a major aspect of their university
experience.
5.8.2 Student perspectives of assessment in units
The second aspect that was a focus of the theme Engagement factors at university was
student perspectives of assessment in units. Students reported in the semi-structured in-depth
focus group interviews that once they have access to the unit outline on LEO, the online learning
environment used by ACU, they usually go directly to the assessment section to see what they
need to do for the unit. During the discussions on assessment many aspects surfaced. The
reflective writing piece in one unit was particularly important for the students as they were
expected to commence it early in the semester. They identified that the Folio of Reflections was
scheduled to be submitted during weeks five to nine in tutorials. The task involved a small
written piece, based on readings from the unit, to demonstrate an understanding of contextual
Chapter 5: Presentation of Findings 159
relationships to explain influences on child and adolescent behaviour and development. The
students elaborated on their thoughts on the assessment:
The idea of the Folio of Reflections presented to collaborative friendship groups
is great! By seeing the improvement over time is vital to first-year students and it
allows us to gain a wider range of knowledge on all topics rather than a report at
the end of the semester [on one topic only]. (Rob FG1, Phase 2, Step 3)
Another student confirmed their liking for this particular piece of assessment:
I really liked the idea of having a reflection due each week rather than all at once,
because then I got to focus on just the one theorist each week, what they were
saying and how I would implement it [their ideas] in the classroom. It made me
have to, and want to, come to the tutorials and I really enjoyed the task having it
broken up each week. (Tim FG4, Phase 2, Step 3)
Another student commented on assessment being early in the semester: “Most of the first-
year units have early assessment. ... I guess small assessment early is good, that way if you
stumble, you can receive feedback and improve for the next piece of assessment” (Gary FG1,
Phase 2, Step 3). Students deliberated that many of the assessments were due at similar times,
which made it difficult to balance everything. A student confirmed this:
A lot of the assessments are due around the same time. It’s very stressful, but if
staff put in place mechanisms to support student stress at assessment time, for
example, allowing extensions and moving assessment due dates … this would
allow for submission of a high standard of work. (Sally FG5, Phase 2, Step 3)
Students also acknowledged that there were some positive and negative perspectives on
group work. Students identified that in first-year units; they were grouped with others they did
not know. Their comments support this as they contributed to the interview:
Group work is challenging; you can’t choose your own group members so you
can get to know hard workers. If you’ve worked with them, then it’s easier, things
can go smoother. Not everyone pulls their weight in the group, so I put myself in
a leadership role to keep on focus, push others to work. (Kate FG3, Phase 2, Step
3)
160 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
Further comments by students supported the idea of the “confidential checklist” supplied by the
lecturer in the unit outline. This is completed by students and identifies who has and has not
participated fully in the preparation of the group assessment. “The checklist is a good way to
inform the lecturer about who did what when working together in groups. We complete it based
on participation and nobody knows what is said” (Adam FG2, Phase 2, Step 3). This was
confirmed by another student: “The checklist is great as it keeps everyone accountable and even
though the marks are distributed evenly, sometimes the lecturer can decide whether a student
loses marks or not, based on the feedback from the students” (Gary FG1, Phase 2, Step 3). A
student offered another positive message regarding group work:
My experience with group work was positive and everyone did what was expected
of them and we all received the same grade. I’ve heard of others who receive
individual marks if they don’t perform effectively though. I don’t want to be in
that boat. (Mary FG1, Phase 2, Step 3)
The topic of group work was also prevalent in the semi-structured in-depth individual
interviews as one student stated that “it is often the best way to manage the class early in the
semester” (Katie II, Phase 2, Step 4). However, many students agreed with the following view:
I would prefer to be able to choose the students I wish to work with in order to
achieve the highest grade as my standards are quite high, and it annoys me if I
have to work with someone who’s not on the same wave length and I have to carry
them to get a good mark. (Bridget II, Phase 2, Step 4)
The Folio of Reflections assessment piece was again discussed in the semi-structured in-
depth individual interviews, and in stark contrast to the opinions expressed in the focus group
interviews, there were students who would have preferred a different personal reflection
assessment piece. One comment was that “I struggled to articulate how I felt, and a critical
essay is easier than a reflective piece for me” (Bridget II, Phase 2, Step 4). This student
understood, however, that in becoming an effective teacher, she must learn how to be reflective
in her teaching practice and be able to link theory with practice in a reflective way. The student
continued: “I am fully aware that I need to learn how to be reflective as eventually I will take
Chapter 5: Presentation of Findings 161
that into the classroom, but I just struggled with that assessment, even though the lecturer
unpacked it quite well” (Bridget II, Phase 2, Step 4).
Another student commented in relation to assessments being due close together that “it
would be great if assessment was also staggered, as this would lighten the load and I could
concentrate on all pieces and do a good job on each one” (Mary II, Phase 2, Step 4). However,
they seemed to understand that with four units in 12 weeks, this could be difficult.
Several students in the individual interviews agreed that the unpacking of assessment
assisted with knowing what was required of them: “For me, it is important to know what I can
do in preparation for assessment. It might just be simply reading the unit outline assessment
section and wait to be told by the lecturer” (Aidan II, Phase 2, Step 4). Students confirmed that
in the first tutorial, “lecturers unpack the assessment items, which gives you a better idea of
what to expect” (Bridget II, Phase 2, Step 4). This perception is confirmed with this comment:
“In the first few weeks, I remember being given a quiz or reflective piece of writing. These
exercises motivated me to participate in the content and assisted me with further preparation
with assessment” (Anna II, Phase 2, Step 4).
As much as there are many pieces of assessment across the first semester in first year,
students identified that there is good reason why some assessments are due in the early part of
the semester. This is to allow the students a chance to identify where their strengths and
weakness may lie and to seek support where necessary.
5.8.3 Lecturers’ feedback and support
The third aspect that was a focus of the theme Engagement factors at university was the
lecturers’ feedback and support. Students believe that both feedback and support from lecturers
were foundational to success. During the semi-structured in-depth focus group interviews
students acknowledged that they appreciate feedback that is “received before the next piece of
assessment is due and invites time to reflect” (Wendy FG5, Phase 2, Step 3). Similarly, students
162 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
commented that it is difficult if feedback is not received: “You don’t always get feedback and
that’s difficult. Not receiving feedback does not assist with personal growth or to understand
knowledge gap” (Geoff FG1, Phase 2, Step 3).
During the semi-structured in-depth individual interviews comments on assessment
feedback were also made: “Verbal feedback assists me with scaffolding my assignments and
offers me guidance. I know how to improve, and I like that” (Sue II, Phase 2, Step 4). Another
important form of feedback and support students suggested was necessary for improvement was
how to present the assignment. Several students commented on how “the lecturer actually took
the time to scaffold the assignment and go through it step by step so I could set it out correctly.
This is really something that is useful and what I needed” (Bridget II, Phase 2, Step 4).
Students identified that if they feel the lecturer is interested in their success and wants to
support them, then they are more likely to approach the lecturer in the future: “At first, I was a
little tentative to approach my lecturer, but I realised they were there to help, and they were
willing” (Anna II, Phase 2, Step 4). Further, written and verbal feedback and support were
important for guiding them in their units of study. This is evident in the following comments:
Support from lecturers in units assisted in the enjoyment of the unit and when they
have an open-door policy to visit and chat, then that certainly helps as well. This
sure settles the nerves and allows me to get to know the staff in a more personal
way. (Mary II, Phase 2, Step 4)
In one particular unit, students are encouraged to visit the lecturer, make
appointments, email or call the lecturer if questions need to be answered. Having
this engagement available outside of the classroom offers us extra support. The
support that students receive showcase that some lecturers in units show a
relationship care factor. (Bridget II, Phase 2, Step 4)
Similar to in the focus group interviews, some students commented about not receiving
feedback, agreeing with the view that this is not helpful: “Some of the quizzes have been online,
so we don’t get any feedback for that, just a mark. It’s not very helpful” (Bridget II, Phase 2, Step
4).
Chapter 5: Presentation of Findings 163
The sub themes of engagement in and outside of class; student perspectives of assessment
in units; and lecturers’ feedback and support have been identified. These findings will now be
discussed further.
5.8.4 Findings from the theme Engagement factors at university
The following findings about engagement factors at university emerged from the
interview data:
• Many students believe that it is imperative for their lecturers to be engaging and that
some of the strategies they employ in classes could be detrimental to their learning.
• Assessment must be clearly set out and scaffolded for students to understand what is
expected of them.
• Written and verbal feedback are essential to guide and assist students. This is useful
both before assessment is due and after it has been marked for students to know how
to improve for the next piece of assessment.
• Swift staff communication and support from lecturers, especially on assessment, is
considered an important aspect of student learning.
• Lecturers can impede student engagement with their studies. Matters of language and
pedagogy influence learning and need to be understood and negotiated as part of the
learning process.
5.9 SEMI-STRUCTURED IN-DEPTH INDIVIDUAL INTERVIEWS:
PARTICIPANT CASE STUDIES
The purpose of this section is to elaborate on key issues raised from the initial semi-
structured in-depth individual interviews during Phase 2, Step 4. For this purpose, all students
who participated earlier in the study were contacted again, and permission was obtained to
pursue those issues that invited further amplification. Three non-recent school leavers each
agreed to participate in a second semi-structured in-depth individual interview, which are
164 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
shared through the three participant case studies discussed in this section. The initial analysis
of data generated three key issues: Sense of belonging (Section 5.7.2), Peer networking and
diverse social group (Section 5.6.2), and Engagement in and outside of class (Section 5.8.1).
The first issue concerns Sense of belonging and is examined in case study 1. It focuses on
a non-recent school leaver and her experiences with some academic staff and peers and the lack
of validation she received while in class attendance.
The second issue concerns Peer networking and diverse social groups in case study 2 and
how developing these networks assisted learning of first-year students. The participant is
focused on assisting herself as well as her peers and they have developed a community of
practice in the shape of study groups.
The third issue concerns Engagement in and outside of class where the lecturers’
behaviour is the discussion point in case study 3. The participant identifies his disappointment
in a unit he was studying and how this behaviour affected his decision to attend classes.
These case studies are now explored in depth in the following subsections.
5.9.1 Participant Bridget CC – Case Study 1: Sense of belonging
Participant Bridget CC, previously Bridget II and FG2 entered university as a non-recent
school leaver who had a previous career in recruitment. As her higher school certificate results
did not provide her with access to university, she “just clocked out”. After leaving school she
entered the workforce but as an 18th birthday gift, her family financed her travel to Britain,
where she remained for three and a half years. There, she met her husband and they both
returned to Australia. She gained a role in recruitment where she was successful in her role as
a recruiter; as a result, she dismissed prior ideas concerning university study and becoming a
teacher. She confirmed this through her comments: “I fell into recruitment; it was good for a
while and it paid well. I decided to not bother with uni as my score wasn’t good enough. I just
took leave when I started to have my children.”
Chapter 5: Presentation of Findings 165
The experience of motherhood influenced her changing priorities. The working hours in
her previous career were not conducive to raising children. Even though it was a high-paying
job and all her attention was focused on her position, she regularly worked from 7 a.m. to 7 p.m.
She believed that her recruitment career became incompatible with parental responsibilities.
Consequently, she decided to pursue a previous interest in a teaching career. It was an easy
decision, because many in her family were teachers. Further, she wanted to engage in education
to support the growth of her young children. Even though the decision meant financial
challenges, Bridget knew it was the right decision and believed that she could balance being a
“mum” and studying because she was passionate about both. She stated:
When I was thinking about the change, I kept coming back to teaching. I had
always thought about it. I think I would make a really good teacher and although
it will be hard at times, I’m sure I have the support to balance it all.
Bridget’s application for entry into the Bachelor of Education (Primary) degree at ACU
was successful. This generated excitement and trepidation early in her degree. On entering
university, she was so proud of herself. She commented: “Uni had felt elusive to me, even
though I felt as though I can do it, but it never seemed close.”
As a Bachelor of Education (Primary) student and feeling very proud of the fact that she
gained entry into university, she initially felt that she was not taken seriously by others and
thought she was being dismissed in class. After coming from a successful career in the
workforce and being “validated” by her boss and peers as an excellent employee, she these
positive feelings of validation would be transferred, but initially this was not the case: “In my
previous role as a recruiter, I was in a leadership role, I was a mentor within the workplace. I
guess I was always listened to and my points were validated. Coming to uni, this changed.”
For Bridget feelings of isolation as a non-recent school leaver, and the dismissive
behaviour from academic staff and peers, contributed to her perception of feeling undervalued
and unworthy of her place at university. Consistently, she reported that she would raise her
166 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
hand to participate in class, and most times she was dismissed and not given the opportunity to
engage in conversation. Bridget dwelled on this point by repeating, “Even though I know I
mentioned this before, I still feel as a mature-aged student, I am dismissed. I come to uni to be
engaged. I want to feel valued and validated.” As a result, she was reluctant to talk to lecturers
and engage in conversation in classes. She reported that this initial perceived experience had a
negative influence on her enthusiasm and motivation. She believed she was perhaps potentially
ignored based on her status as a non-recent school leaver. Consequently, she believed her
opinions were undervalued and this did not accord with how she had been positively treated in
her previous place of employment, where her opinion mattered. She commented:
The feelings of being dismissed took me back to the whole sense of proving
myself. I took any and every opportunity to get validation ... that pat on the back
... it actually drives me ... getting that validation from somebody else. If I’m not
having that collaboration with someone, I find it hard for the content to stick and
sink in.
Bridget believed that her voice should be heard at all times, that she had an opinion and
deserved to be treated with respect and acceptance. In her view, to receive validation motivates
learning. In addition, a respectful relationship with staff confirms and enhances a sense of self-
worth and a belief that pursuing a university degree may be successful. In contrast, when
Bridget felt she was dismissed, she felt publicly humiliated and considered terminating her
studies.
Students who experience validation early in their semester feel welcomed and confirmed
in their decision to attend university. This, in fact, appears to assist students to be more in
control of their learning responsibilities. Even though she believed that she was capable of
completing her studies successfully, lack of validation and negative feedback from staff
hindered her progress in her first semester at university.
Despite the lack of validation, she became even more determined to prove to herself and
to others that her decision to attend university and succeed with high results was the right one.
Chapter 5: Presentation of Findings 167
In order for her to be validated, she decided to focus more on her acceptance in class and worked
harder to prove how her engagement in class made a significant contribution. She said:
At times … I don’t know what I’m learning, I’m learning like everybody else, I’m
going to lectures, I’m going to tutorials and from the personal point of view, I
learn through interaction, dialogue. … I talk out my thoughts and my ideas and I
need those justified and clarified, just like everybody else.
Bridget believed that attending classes was one of the main ways to retain the content and
to become accepted by lecturers and peers. “It’s getting accepted, that first paper submitted,
that first distinction. It’s the tutor telling you that you are ok and proving yourself.” Moreover,
she understood the importance of “the real world” and, because she had assisted people as a
recruiter, knew what employers were looking for when employing staff. Her experiences from
her previous role were transferred into her role as a pre-service teacher and she highlighted this
in the following comment:
I have to treat this like a job because I have to know that there’s a consequence
for not performing, and so that is why, for myself, if I know this is a job, I commit
to it … this is why this degree is really important to me. I want to finish it. I really
have to drive myself to complete things. In your real job you expect validation, if
you are not performing, you get a warning, then you’re gone. Well it’s the same
here at uni for me.
It is clear that validation and motivation for Bridget were a main priority. As the first few
weeks of university passed, she perceived slight improvements with the validation and
acceptance from lecturers. She could not provide any real indication why the lecturers’ attitude
towards her changed, although she confirmed that “as the learning experiences became more
engaging, when I raised my hand to offer my opinion, I was chosen to participate a little more”.
Bridget felt that her answers were taken into consideration: “I felt as though I had a voice after
a while.” Clearly, although it took several weeks for her to experience the validation she needed,
by the end of the semester she had developed a sense of belonging at university.
168 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
Having a sense of belonging at university is a clear indication of feeling connected to the
community and university life. It is through these experiences that some students can engage
appropriately to strive to reach their full potential as first-year students.
5.9.2 Participant Sue CC – Case Study 2: Peer networking and diverse social groups
Participant Sue CC, previously Sue II and FG2 initially shared her experience of peer
networking and diverse social groups in some depth during Phase 2, Step 4 of the research. As
a result, Sue was further contacted, and permission obtained to pursue this issue in depth.
Sue left school and travelled overseas planning to undertake a short working holiday, but
this extended to a period of five years. She was employed as a teacher’s aide and teacher in
Italy, teaching English. Her Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL)
certificate qualifications assisted her both with employment in Italy and with entrance into
university on her return.
During her time in Italy, she decided she wanted to earn a teaching qualification. She
gained as much experience over her five-year stay with the hope that she could obtain her
qualification and part-time teaching employment on her return to Australia. However, her
search for part-time school teaching employment was unsuccessful as teachers need to be fully
qualified in Australia, so she explored full-time university enrolment.
At first, Sue thought she could not afford to attend university full-time due to the cost but
realised that with the HECS she could repay her university tuition debt to the Australian
Government when she was employed. This information came from a friend who was already
studying at university, who explained to her that she had not paid any fees because HECS
offered tertiary fee loans for Australian citizens. Sue had believed she would be ineligible for
HECS because of the quality of her matriculation grades as well as the substantial time lapse
since leaving school. Happily, she was informed she was eligible to obtain a HECS grant.
Chapter 5: Presentation of Findings 169
Initially, Sue thought that she would complete a Diploma in Children’s Services, while
working in a childcare setting. Later, she chose to study teaching young children. This assisted
in her decision to apply for university. Her application for entry to the Bachelor of Education
(Primary) degree at ACU was successful. Her previous experience, qualifications, and referral
from her Italian employer all contributed to her successful entry in the first round of offers. Sue
was “ecstatic” about entering the course and was looking forward to the work and challenges
ahead of her.
Sue experienced content overload on Orientation Day. She also found navigating the
campus problematic. These issues contributed to her having apprehensions concerning future
university life:
I’m very structured and like to know everything that’s happening, but that was not
a reality at the start of university. ... I realised I needed to take things slow and
understand that everything I needed would come eventually.
During Orientation, she met several peers who were also enrolled in the same degree.
Consequently, knowing other enrolled students assisted in relieving her anxieties: “Somehow,
I was just drawn to these people, and even as a non-recent school leaver, after 11 years of
leaving school.”
On entering university, the initial challenge of Orientation Day dissipated and one of the
main aspects that assisted Sue in becoming a part of the Primary pre-service teacher cohort was
that she quickly made friends and developed social and study groups. These friendships were
formed coincidentally because she was timetabled in the same classes. She confirmed this by
stating:
The lecturers encourage in class conversation to begin discussion with their peers.
We are mostly in the same boat, and no one knows each other. We did some ice-
breaker activities and learnt a little about people very quickly.
Sue realised that those with whom she bonded assisted her in her studies. “Often, we
would bounce ideas off each other to understand interpretations of the content.” The early
170 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
making of friends in the Primary cohort helped her to assimilate quickly into university life.
Having “study buddies” and friends from social groups assisted her to engage intelligently with
the units she was studying. She confirmed this through this comment: “It’s important to develop
those friendships particularly at the start … apart from the stress of uni, having friends and
forming friendships makes it all more manageable. These study groups do all of that.” Sue knew
the type of people to whom she was drawn and with whom she wished to engage. She elucidated
this fact:
They are people who are real, aren’t afraid to question things and go out of their
way to clarify it, read all the information and move forward. … I’m drawn to the
same people with the same needs and interests as me. It’s important to develop
those friendships particularly at the start … apart from the stress of uni, having
friends and forming friendships makes it all more manageable.
Sue associated herself with peers who were motivated to strive towards receiving high
marks. The peers in these diverse social groups were similar to Sue, demonstrating similar
needs, interests, and thought processes while at university. Essentially, these students had
established a community of practice, whereby they shared information and supported each
other. Further, when they met as a group, they were sharing their passions for teacher education,
especially insights from what they were learning. These regular meetings motivated them to do
well in their studies. Moreover, Sue often socialised with these same friends outside of
university times:
We’ve got quite a few people in our group. Some that I’ll see every single time
I’m here at uni and we’ve even met up outside of uni, so they’re more than just
study buddies. You definitely need it because as well as coming here to study, it
is also a social thing and feels like a real community of learners. Yeah, we’ve got
quite a broad group of people. We’re all different ages, all come from different
backgrounds. It’s good, like I really enjoy my group.
Knowing and understanding the people in the peer networking and diverse social groups
has assisted Sue to develop a close rapport with her peers. Such relationships have assisted her
Chapter 5: Presentation of Findings 171
both personally and academically. She described how, when on campus, she utilises the time
between classes and makes suggestions to her study group peers regarding
booking a room in the library; hiring a textbook to go over notes … getting
together and dividing up the subjects and topics so that they can each study a part
of and share that information … this works really well, especially if there is an
exam coming up.
This form of collaboration and bond that has developed between Sue and her peers contributes
to the trusting relationships that each of the group members have established. As Sue suggested,
I think it’s a good idea because you get other people’s point of view and it can
save on time. This collaboration continues while attending lectures and tutorials
as students are offered opportunities to participate in the large lectures as well as
in the smaller tutorials.
Developing such groups of support for students is a priority for some. It is evident that
engagement within these groups offers an extension of university life in general, but also
provides a time and place for students to connect to discuss important aspects of their study.
5.9.3 Participant Conor CC – Case Study 3: Engagement in and outside of class
Participant Conor CC, previously Conor II and FG3, shared his experience in some depth
during Phase 2, Step 4 of the study. As a result, he was contacted, and permission obtained to
pursue his issue further. Conor entered university as a non-recent school leaver after
successfully conducting a business in public services, which demanded he work 60 hours a
week. Conor was recently divorced, which generated considerable personal and financial stress,
and as a result, he disengaged from his friends and focused on his study and his hobby of body
building.
During the initial semi-structured in-depth focus group interviews, Conor explained that
he “did not need to work” and after his divorce he reflected on what “life was really about”.
Previously, Conor had a “great deal of money and many cool toys”, but since his divorce he
now has “very little money and no cool toys”. As a result, he believed that he was happy for the
172 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
first time in a long time. He realised that he had changed as a person and was much “nicer now
even though I don’t really have much … I’ve got a lot of time for everyone and I’m happy
where I am”. This personal change in him became one of the catalysts for Conor to choose to
undertake full-time university studies, while pursuing his interest in body building:
I’ve thought “I’ll treat university as a job. If I throw 40 hours at it, I should be
fine.” Yeah and I’m really liking it. It’s a lot less stress than what I was used to,
so it’s quite good. I can balance my body building with study, because if I do well
in the competitions, I do receive supplements and some prize money.
Conor acknowledged that he was required to start afresh with friends as well as taking
responsibility in making future choices, one of which was to become a teacher. He had a
realistic appreciation of the time needed to succeed at studies. In addition, another catalyst to
becoming a teacher was so he could be a more caring and supportive father to his two primary-
school-aged daughters:
I want it so I can see my girls and spend quality time with them during the
holidays. If I have to do some schoolwork, it’s okay, but I get to spend a lot of
time with them. That is what drives me.
It’s taken me a while to get to uni, but becoming a teacher will allow me more
opportunities, both with my own children and the children I will be teaching. I’m
very excited for the future.
Conor appreciated that university was difficult but anticipated that his lecturers would
help him to succeed:
I chose ACU as I’d always heard good reports about it and the fact that it’s a small
campus with very approachable staff ... I came in with high expectations and plan
to study hard and do well. I expect the staff to be engaging and professional as
well, but it seems that some are just not.
Early in Semester 1, Conor’s perception was that he felt disengaged in a unit and found
difficulties in communicating with the unit’s teaching staff. Even though he liked the unit and
the content was interesting, the delivery and teaching strategies lacked engagement. He believed
Chapter 5: Presentation of Findings 173
the presentation lacked a logical sequence, while his understanding of content was impeded by
the lecturer’s heavy foreign accent:
It sounds really racist, but I couldn’t understand her. I just couldn’t understand
her, and we’d go [to the lectures] and I was getting no benefit. It was just reading
straight off the slides, where most other classes we go to the slides are up but
you’re talking and there’s other stuff, other input, which is really good … she gave
no examples to support the content. There was a language barrier that was not
conducive to satisfactory learning and this made integrating into that part of the
university culture very difficult.
Further, Conor reported that there was a time where the lecturer failed not only to attend
lectures, but also to inform students about this absence. It is the expectation of the university
that lecturers attend all allocated lectures and tutorials, are prepared and organised, follow the
weekly schedules, and do not change the content of the unit. Lecturers are to prepare a unit
outline for the students, which is a bound contract between students and staff. In this first-year
unit, many errors occurred that did not assist with Conor’s journey. Because content was
different from what was printed on the unit outline, Conor felt confused and stated: “I’m
probably too lazy to make a complaint, but one of our subjects is an absolute joke. They change
everything and do whatever they want and it’s just confusing for everyone.”
Conor believed the lecturer’s behaviour in this case was not acceptable and did not meet
his expectations. He expressed “bitter disappointment” with this lecturer’s behaviour; however,
he made the decision to engage in the content and do his best to pass the unit. The perceived lack
of support, encouragement, motivation, and engagement by the lecturer of the unit affected his
attendance pattern as he chose to stop attending lectures but continued with the tutorials: “I still
attended the tutorials because it was a different tutor and he was approachable and committed to
attending to my educational needs. He tried really hard to help me.” Conor understood his own
learning style and took advantage of the tutor’s professionalism, because he wasn’t being engaged
174 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
by the lecturer during lectures. In the end he stated that he needed to do everything to engage
himself so that “I will be happy with just a pass”.
Conor anticipated that each lecturer who taught him would be a positive role model and
model behaviour that is conducive to becoming a teacher. He believed that the teaching staff at
university would engage in teaching strategies that would assist students in understanding the
intricacies of becoming a teacher. He perceived that the lecturer’s behaviour and lack of
engagement affected his experiences in his first year. Because of this, Conor took matters into
his own hands and turned the negative experience into a positive one by engaging in the content
through an external tutor who was also a teacher. Conor was able to share the knowledge that
he was learning from the textbook and tutorials with his teacher friend who understood the
content and provided guidance and assistance.
In contrast to this negative experience, Conor acknowledged the variety of lecturers’
teaching strategies that did engage him:
One unit the lecturer dances, and that is just great. It grabs my attention and the
music played in class relates to the topic being presented. It still takes a bit to grasp
the content, but I love that class … It’s my favourite subject … All lecturers are
different. I want engaging strategies, more visual than just slides, putting things
into context that I can relate to, to grasp the bigger picture.
It is evident that a variety of teaching strategies and approaches appeal to students at
differing levels. Each student will decide which ones benefit them in order to gain the most out
of their university learning experience and how they choose to engage with such experiences.
5.9.4 Findings from the three case studies
Findings from the three case studies are as follows:
• Being validated serves as an important aspect for student engagement. If this does not
occur then there is potential for students to feel isolated and unable to form
relationships with their peers and university staff.
Chapter 5: Presentation of Findings 175
• Forming study and friendship groups is reported as imperative for students to assist
them with the academic rigour of university. Students who are like minded and work
effectively are usually invited to join such groups.
• Student proactivity and responsibility can offset unmet expectations of lecturing staff.
5.10 FINDINGS FROM STUDY
The findings in this chapter indicate that most first-year Bachelor of Education (Primary)
students engage in a variety of experiences that either assist or do not assist their learning. This
study has created an awareness of the different experiences and supports at ACU and
demonstrated contrasting beliefs concerning the influence of such engagement. Further analysis
of the findings provided in this chapter has generated three overarching themes that provide
insight into student experiences of first-year university.
Theme 1: Personal transition to university
• Engaged students value Orientation Day, but many find it overwhelming.
• Engaged students value the Mentoring Program.
• Engaged students develop a sense of student identity and are motivated to succeed.
• Engaged students value validation from staff and peers.
• Engaged students take responsibility for their engagement.
Theme 2: Social experiences at university
• Engaged students benefit from social interaction through study and friendship groups.
Theme 3: Academic experiences at university
• Engaged students develop positive study habits and strategies to promote time
management skills.
• Engaged students create partnerships with their teachers to improve their engagement
in and outside of class.
176 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
These themes are now discussed further in Chapter 6, Discussion of Findings and Study
Conclusions.
Chapter 6: Discussion of Findings and Study Conclusions 177
Chapter 6: Discussion of Findings and Study Conclusions
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The impetus for this study was a concern for first-year Bachelor of Education (Primary)
students, and whether students experienced or engaged with the university support services
offered by the university. My interest also grew from my experiences of teaching first-year
Bachelor of Education (Primary) students. Within this context there developed a passion to
understand and optimise learning experiences for all students, particularly those who had gained
entry to the degree with low scores or through alternative pathway entry. This concern stemmed
from my role as the Lecturer in Charge and Tutor of first-year pre-service teachers, and the
complementary roles of First-Year Experience Coordinator, Mentoring Program Coordinator,
and member of the Orientation and Open Day Committees. In these roles, particularly as a
lecturer of first-year students, I noticed that some students struggled with general literacy skills
such as reflective writing and interpretation of readings, as well as demonstrating limited
engagement within the overall life of the university. When reviewing the literature on the
context in which my concerns rested (Chapter 2), I concluded that the policy to provide access
to university for those who traditionally did not gain access can in part be attributed to goals set
by international institutions such as the OECD, their adoption within national tertiary education
frameworks, and in response to institutional mission and strategic intentions.
With this background, I identified the research purpose as one of understanding the way
first-year students experience and engage with supports offered by the university and university
life. ACU provides a range of services to support first-year students and with many of these
students now entering the university with low scores, there is limited research data on their
experience of first year, specifically for those enrolled in the Bachelor of Education (Primary)
degree at the Brisbane campus, Banyo. Without such research, it is not known if and to what
178 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
extent the services provided by the university for first-year students are adequate in their
breadth, are able to be accessed appropriately, and are supportive of the FYE.
The research question was generated following a review of the literature centred on
student experiences and was articulated as follows:
How do first-year Bachelor of Education (Primary) students at Australian Catholic
University (ACU) on the Brisbane campus engage with supports and experience university
life, and can a tool be developed to assess engagement that will benefit the wider higher
education community?
A constructionist epistemological position was taken that used an interpretivist research
paradigm, along with case study as the methodology, which incorporated the view of the actors
in the case under study (Hughes & Hitchcock, 1995). Data were viewed through a symbolic
interactionist lens to identify the centrality of significant symbols as first-year students
interpreted their reality during their first semester of study (Crotty, 1998). Consistent with
symbolic interactionism, two distinct phases of data collection were used: Exploration and
Inspection (Blumer, 1998). The Exploration Phase asks, “What’s going on around here?”
(Charon, 2007, p. 194). In this study this perspective was achieved through the application of
the SPQ (Biggs, 1987), which informed the development of the interview protocols. The
Inspection Phase of the study drew from conclusions established within the SPQ and used a
series of semi-structured in-depth focus group and individual interviews to explore the research
question. Both stages of the study were supported by an iterative process of data analysis. The
purpose of Chapter 5 was to display and discuss in detail these data and develop findings; this
led to the generation of three themes based on the findings and summarised at the conclusion
of the chapter. The three themes comprised Personal transition to university, Social experiences
at university, and Academic experiences at university. Each theme encompassed a number of
findings, reproduced here for the convenience of the reader:
Chapter 6: Discussion of Findings and Study Conclusions 179
Theme 1: Personal transition to university
• Engaged students value Orientation Day, but many find it overwhelming.
• Engaged students value the Mentoring Program.
• Engaged students develop a sense of student identity and are motivated to succeed.
• Engaged students value validation from staff and peers.
• Engaged students take responsibility for their engagement.
Theme 2: Social experiences at university
• Engaged students benefit from social interaction through study and friendship groups.
Theme 3: Academic experiences at university
• Engaged students develop positive study habits and strategies to promote time
management skills.
• Engaged students create partnerships with their teachers to improve their engagement
in and outside of class.
While there is a clear overlap between the three themes of findings, they will be separated
artificially in Chapter 6 to permit the detailed analysis presented in Sections 6.2 to 6.4. The
purpose through these sections is to discuss the findings by drawing on the research literature
and the symbolic interactionist lens to provide greater insights with a view to addressing the
research question underpinning the thesis. Considerable research draws on Pittaway’s work (see
for example; Redmond et al., 2018 & Mann, 2005) as this work has become an important
framework for use in higher education. To achieve this, the discussion using symbolic
interactionism draws on the three tenets of symbolic interactions (Blumer, 1969). The first tenet
views how individuals attribute their own meaning making to a given phenomenon and act
according to their constructed meaning making, and views communication as a symbolic
process evidenced in language and symbols. The second tenet is the acceptance that others make
meaning that can be different from their own meaning making. The third tenet is that meaning
180 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
making is “handled and modified through an interpretive process used by the person in dealing
with the things he or she encounters” (Blumer, 1969, p. 2). That is, social interaction
demonstrates that established meanings can be changed through a jointly agreed upon
interpretive process (Blumer, 1969; Crotty, 1998). In this case, the researcher is interacting with
the participants and therefore becomes symbolic only because of the significant symbols, that
is, the language, gestures, and non-verbal communication that are shared and through which
communication follows. It is only through this dialogue that the researcher becomes aware of
the perceptions, feelings, beliefs, and attitudes of others and can interpret their meaning making
and intent (Crotty, 1998). It is not the intention of the researcher to associate a value to each
tenet provided, but rather to identify and interpret how each student’s experiences differ from
one another according to their engagement levels and the tenets of symbolic interactionism, and
how these can be linked to their experiences. It is not possible to assess each student’s level of
engagement across a number of activities as these were not consistently discussed by students.
Rather generalised discussion on levels of engagement are advanced.
Understanding the type of interaction that takes place through the individual internal
discussion of talking to oneself occurs with symbols. This process is identified by symbolic
interactionists (Charon, 2007) as thinking, and it is through this thinking—the process of
carrying on a conversation and pointing things out to oneself internally—that analysis occurs
based on reflection. Moreover, insight into changes in knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes can be
apparent when this internal interaction is externalised—for example, during the completion of
the SPQ or during the various forms of interviews conducted in this study. By mapping these
interactions using symbolic interactionism and aligning the insights with the research literature,
it is possible to amplify connections and explore the findings. In this light, Section 6.5 addresses
the research question by advancing theoretical propositions. While the discussion to this point
has artificially separated the three themes of the findings to provide clarity, the reality is that it
is more complex and this simplicity is limited. Addressing this simplicity, the connections
Chapter 6: Discussion of Findings and Study Conclusions 181
between these three themes are drawn together in Sections 6.6 and 6.7 through my contribution
to the field in the form of the application of the theory: Spectrum of Engagement Framework.
Finally, in Sections 6.8 to 6.10 the recommendations, limitations and thesis conclusions are
presented.
6.2 PERSONAL TRANSITION TO UNIVERSITY
Transition to university is supported through the provision of orientation experiences and
peer mentoring. The intention of these supports is for students to ideally develop a university
student identity, become motivated, feel validated by students and staff, and in turn take
responsibility for their engagement at university in order to succeed.
6.2.1 Engaged students value Orientation Day, but many find it overwhelming
Students in this study attended Orientation Day, which included a full day of activities
where the experience enabled the communication of information on course expectations by
course advisors and provided an opportunity for students to meet university personnel at a “meet
and greet” session and participate in campus tours, essentially to acclimatise themselves to the
campus. Some students were genuinely engaged at this early point of their student life,
reinforcing the conclusions of Baik et al. (2015), who reported that students do interact initially
and willingly with others. In this study, this was evident where students actively sought out
friends and began to form networks of new friends. These students came to Orientation with a
view to change, to be open to new ideas, to establish themselves as students, and to interact
with others to make this happen. These interactions align with Tenet 3 (Blumer, 1969) as
students started to negotiate meeting arrangements and come to common understandings as to
places, people, and expectations. Interestingly, because of their motivation and engagement,
these students were open to new ideas and were changing and maturing their views and seeing
themselves as professionals in the field early in their degree. This finding confirms the research
by M. Christie et al. (2018) whereby orientation provides valuable information that also
182 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
includes the “strategic priorities of the university” (p. 128), along with research by Baik et al.
(2015), who reported that the aim of orientation is to develop a sense of “affiliation with their
institution and their course and staff” (p. 30). For these students, Orientation Day met their
needs and they took advantage of the supports provided by the university.
While Orientation Day was considered valuable, many students interviewed indicated
that it was also overwhelming and at times there was too much information provided and it was
difficult to embrace it all. This finding supports previous research that orientation should be a
transition initiative that is embedded across the first year of study (Douglas et al., 2018) and not
be understood as a standalone experience. However, this finding contrasts with the views of
McPhail et al. (2015), who argued that the objectives of one-day orientation programs can be
met with a short program. The findings of this research confirm that while one-day orientation
is worthwhile, and that most students in this study did actively engage with it, there would be
advantages to having a protracted orientation across a longer time frame. In this way, the
research by Douglas et al. (2018) is supported. Using the symbolic interactionist lens, it is easy
to see that for most students, a one-day orientation limits interaction with the information
provided and minimises the potential connections among participants. Most students come to
this day understanding that Orientation will provide them with information that will push the
boundaries of their thinking, and for many this is confronting. This short, sharp approach puts
these students under pressure that has them seeking comfort by retracting to Tenet 1, relying on
their own understandings (Blumer, 1969). Some of these students may see that other
possibilities and different understandings exist, placing them at Tenet 2 of symbolic
interactionism, but are too overwhelmed to interact in a way that will bring them to Tenet 3
(Blumer, 1969). Without additional extended opportunities to interact with academic staff,
professional staff, and other students, they are unable to interact sufficiently well to progress to
Tenet 3 where they can co-create a common understanding of expectations and responsibilities
evident in the highly engaged students.
Chapter 6: Discussion of Findings and Study Conclusions 183
6.2.2 Engaged students value the Mentoring Program
This study confirms that a mentoring program offers a practical approach for students to
be introduced to the life of the university, confirming the research by Lim et al. (2017), while
serving as a positive influence on overall progress (Cooper, 2018). While differences exist with
the implementation of mentoring programs, what is consistent is the emphasis on support in the
first year (Douglass et al., 2013; Heirdsfield et al., 2008). However, highly engaged students in
this study joined the program and it can be argued that their actions have them aligning with
Tenet 3 as they demonstrate making choices to join the program, engage in social interactions,
and communicate with one another. This resulted in developing socially constructed meaning
about being a student in their first year of study. In contrast, those students who did not enrol
in the program remained at Tenet 1, while those who did enrol but failed to engage had moved
to Tenet 2 (Blumer, 1969) but could not socially interact with others, keeping them at this level.
6.2.3 Engaged students develop a sense of student identity and are motivated to succeed
A finding of this study is that students do transition into their student identity through
their engagement with Orientation Day and the Mentoring Program. However, it is also
understood that, for the students in this study, there was an acknowledgement that their identity
as university students began to develop prior to this point and was particularly supported at the
point of receiving a university offer and at the time of enrolment. Motivation for attending
university has been nominated as an influence on student identity that can promote student
learning (Elkins et al., 2000; Wilson et al., 2015). In this context, there are varied reasons why
students attend university and what motivates them to establish and maintain their engagement.
What is clear, however, is that first-year students are transitioning from different experiences
and generate their own personal strategies based on their backgrounds and priorities, which has
also been reported by Gale and Parker (2014). These personal experiences and characteristics
distinguish students from one another and explain differing motivations and attitudes towards
engagement, confirming the conclusions of Heagney and Benson (2017). Students who quickly
184 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
adapt to their new surroundings and interact with others and thereby develop a student identity
are seen to be operating at Tenet 3 (Blumer, 1969).
While most students presented as interacting at Tenet 3, demonstrating motivation and
developing their student identity, other students in this study narrated that in the beginning of
their time at university they were unmotivated as they expected university life to be like school.
These students initially failed to interact with university experiences and held strongly to their
existing beliefs and understandings, which prevented them from moving beyond Tenet 1. Further,
this restricted view about what university life should be like contributed to a lack of motivation
and precipitated a loss of confidence and disappointing grades. Fortunately for most, these early
experiences became the catalyst for a change in attitude as they began to realise they needed to
interact and seek new practices to be successful. This reflective thinking can be aligned with Tenet
2, where students acknowledged that other students have different views and interacted in
different ways and that it may be worth interacting with them to understand these. This reflective
thinking of Tenet 2 allowed them to advance their thinking to adopt a more responsible approach
towards their study and life at university, hence then operating at Tenet 3.
6.2.4 Engaged students value validation from staff and peers
Research literature concludes that when attending university, students are eager to be
recognised, confirmed, and assisted in their learning by academic staff (e.g., Baik et al., 2019).
This study can confirm this finding and extend it. The finding is that while non-academic staff
endeavour to offer students a supportive and encouraging learning environment, this is not limited
to academic staff. The students in this study reported that validation and friendship from their
peers was also important (Buote et al., 2007). This was more evident from students who were
highly engaged. They sought interactions with peers to negotiate understanding, espouse their
views, and argue their point of view. This highly interactive process aligns with Tenet 3 (Blumer,
1969) and indicates that these students are co-constructing new meaning and that opportunities
Chapter 6: Discussion of Findings and Study Conclusions 185
for this to occur are essential. It is here that the academic needs to provide a supportive space for
this in all teaching forums.
6.2.5 Engaged students take responsibility for their engagement
The conclusion can be drawn from the research literature that it is a shared responsibility
of students and staff to take responsibility for student engagement at university (Axelson &
Flick, 2011), although Tight (2019) recognised that there has been a shift in the responsibility
resting with the student to that of the higher education institution. The finding is that while this
is important for the university, it is more so important for the student to make decisions to
engage and to take measures to do so, which will assist with university success. This was more
evident from students who were highly engaged. Students participated in Orientation Day,
social groups and clubs, the Mentoring Program, and other services provided by the university.
This is relative to Tenet 3 (Blumer, 1969) whereby students, in the process of meaning making,
are co-constructing new meaning and engaging in as many opportunities as they can, which in
turn, identifies these students as highly engaged.
6.3 SOCIAL EXPERIENCES AT UNIVERSITY
6.3.1 Engaged students benefit from social interaction through study and friendship
groups
Social experiences through study and friendship groups are significant to first-year
university experience. This influence can be understood through the phenomenon of communities
of practice (Reaburn & McDonald, 2016). In this study, students reported that as a result of being
involved in these groups, they were more inclined to experience first-year university in a positive
way. This finding confirms earlier research that those involved within the community of practice
can also entail “groups of people who share a concern, a set of problems, or a passion about a
topic, and who deepen their knowledge and expertise in this area by interacting on an ongoing
186 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
basis” (Wenger, McDermott, & Snyder, 2002, p. 4). By engaging in such groups and sharing and
developing common understandings, students are interacting in a way that is aligned with Tenet
3 (Blumer, 1969). That is, they have socially constructed common understandings. Their
participation continues in the group because they have constructed these commonly held
understandings as they benefit all. This symbolic interactionist understanding sits well with earlier
research that supports the notion that to enable learning and engagement in university life, this
ideally occurs in an interactive environment with community dynamics offering a breadth of
social and professional learning opportunities (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Wenger et al., 2002).
The students in this study outlined that their study groups were initially generated through
class interactions, allowing friendships to be established, which, in turn, led to the establishment
of small study and friendship groups (Buote et al., 2007). Students reported that when formed,
their study groups enabled them to engage with one another outside of timetabled classes to
share ideas and discuss content of lectures, as well as to generate strategies to complete
assignments and to offer alternative perspectives on course material. Not only did students in
this study support each other academically and socially in these groups, but they also supported
each other emotionally, particularly when they experienced the stress of assessment.
Notwithstanding the importance of the groups, students determined who belonged to the groups
and were open to change as students continually entered and exited as common understandings
did not always form. The interactions of the students in these groups are at Tenet 3.
In contrast to students who sought interaction through study and friendship groups, it was
reported by some students that it was not necessary to join these groups and, therefore, their
social interaction with other students was limited. Such students have been termed “legitimate
peripheral participants” (O’Donnell & Tobbell, 2007, p. 315). For these students, the formation
of these groups was not seen to be important to them, as they did not wish to, or did not know
how to, associate themselves with fellow peers. It has been noted in the research literature that
this could then lead to students not continuing with university studies as they fail to develop a
Chapter 6: Discussion of Findings and Study Conclusions 187
sense of belonging (Penn-Edwards & Donnison, 2014). These students could be seen as
operating at Tenet 1 (Blumer, 1969) as they are only making meaning of the experiences that
are important to them, which often confirms their own thinking that is guided by their own
reflective actions and self-talk. If this group of students are the students who gained entry with
low entry scores or through an alternative pathway, then they are missing out on the richness
of the student discussion that is part of constructing meaning about what they are learning and
how they are to learn it.
In addition, for interaction to occur, it relies on friendships developing, and in this study,
participants held contrasting opinions regarding the importance of friendship groups at
university. Not all students made friends early in the first semester of their degree but went on
to do so toward the end of Semester 1. It could be argued that these students have slowly moved
through the tenets, moving from Tenet 1 to Tenet 2 and on to Tenet 3 (Blumer, 1969). There
were also many students who chose not to engage in a group, and these continued to operate at
Tenet 1. An interesting aside is that non-recent school leavers reported that they tried to make
friends with the recent school leavers but felt isolated from them at times. Indeed, recent school
leavers were not particularly interested in forming friendships with the older students.
6.4 ACADEMIC EXPERIENCES AT UNIVERSITY
6.4.1 Engaged students develop positive study habits and strategies to promote time
management skills
Many highly engaged students in this study sought advice from the OSS to develop
appropriate study habits and strategies such as time management skills. There were, however,
other students, many of whom entered university with low entry scores, who did not seek this
support. Discussions with these students suggested that their lack of engagement was due to the
stigma they perceived was associated with accessing this form of support.
188 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
ACU provides workshops to support student study habits as university study requires a
new level of expertise for almost all students (ACU 2019a; Larkin et al., 2016). The workshops
that students discussed in this study introduced them to specific habits and strategies, one of
which was time management. During the Orientation Day sessions, all students were
encouraged to attend OSS. Research confirms this strategy and advances that the establishment
of and access to effective study habits and strategies is the responsibility of both the student and
the university (Van der Meer, Jansen, & Torenbeek, 2010; Yorke & Longden, 2008).
This study showed that it was predominantly the non-recent school leavers who used the
workshops of the OSS. These students believed that academic skills were significant to their
overall academic experience and as such were open to new ideas on how to achieve success at
university. It is here that students move into Tenet 2 as they acknowledge that there are ways of
strengthening their opportunities at university by engaging in social and academic interactions to
support their leaning. This further interaction and implementation then place them at Tenet 3
(Blumer, 1969). However, while it was established that non-recent school leavers used the service
more often, there were instances where some recent school leavers did also attend. This was
motivated by their university experience being different from school, particularly with processes
of organisation and developing habits and strategies that were useful for academic success.
In the beginning, many students failed to interact with the provisions of OSS as they were
not prepared to relinquish their pre-existing perspective that this type of university support is
for those people who struggle with academic work, which prevented them from advancing
beyond Tenet 1. When reflecting on this situation, some students who were reluctant initially
did indicate that they eventually did attend some support services, but this delay had its
consequences for these students. Unfortunately, others stayed at Tenet 1 as negative
connotations presented barriers to participation. While it is well established that there are
workshops and guidance from Academic Skills to assist with university transition and the
academic rigour across all universities (Blair, 2017; Hossain et al., 2012), some students in this
Chapter 6: Discussion of Findings and Study Conclusions 189
study feared the stigma of support that was attached to any additional help, which was the case
when they were at school, and they perceived this also existed at university. It could be argued
that it was these very students who would have benefitted most by attending the support
sessions, as some may have previously received learning support when at school. This claim is
made as it is supported by recent research that confirms many teacher preparation programs are
allowing students to enter university with an ATAR below 50 and an OP as low as 25 (Baik et
al., 2019; McGraw & Fish, 2018). This fear of being identified as needing academic help
restricts student engagement, keeping them at Tenet 2, where they know that opportunities exist
but are not willing to interact. It presents as essential that university academic support services
differentiate their service from school-based support so as both to assist the limited number of
students with learning difficulties and to provide the more general academic-related services
they offer to support all university students.
6.4.2 Engaged students create partnerships with their teachers to improve their
engagement in and outside of class
Many engaged students in this study created partnerships with their teachers to improve
their engagement in and outside of class. This was achieved through conversations about
assessment, personal experiences, and teaching experiences and through choosing to take
advantage of drop-in sessions to converse with their teachers, all of which assisted with
developing these partnerships. Students confirmed that they were recognised outside of class
and were impressed when teachers called them by their name. If students choose not to extend
their engagement in this fashion, then they are operating in Tenet 1 (Blumer, 1969). However,
for those engaging with their teachers, it is evident that they align with Tenet 2 where they are
open to new meaning making and Tenet 3, co-constructed meaning, as they are making
connections and co-constructing their relationships to inform and reinforce their engagement.
190 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
6.5 ADDRESSING THE RESEARCH QUESTION
This study has generated considerable data across two stages of the study to understand
the research question:
How do first-year Bachelor of Education (Primary) students at Australian Catholic
University (ACU) on the Brisbane campus engage with supports and experience university
life, and can a tool be developed to assess engagement that will benefit the wider higher
education community?
As this research study is interpretive, it is not the intention to definitively answer the
nominated research question. Rather, the intention is to write a descriptive account of the
findings to enable the reader to make decisions about the transferability to their own context on
the basis of “fit” (Stake, 2000). To support the reader in making these decisions, theoretical
propositions are provided, and these are based on the three themes that were generated from the
analysis of data that formed the basis of the display of data presented in Chapter 5.
Consequently, following the interpretation of these data in this chapter by using the research
literature and the symbolic interactionist lens, the advancement of the following theoretical
propositions was undertaken.
Personal transition to university proposition: When students see themselves as members
of the university life, where they engage with one another, allowing their strongly held views
to change and grow through interaction, they become motivated students, and this ultimately
leads to enhanced opportunities for success.
Social experiences at university proposition: Students who engage and connect socially
through communities of practice advance their thinking and learning through an interpretive
process supported by interaction with others that ultimately leads to co-constructed new
meanings for them as university students.
Chapter 6: Discussion of Findings and Study Conclusions 191
Academic experience at university proposition: Academic success is founded on the
engagement with knowledge and skills between the student and other students and the student
and staff, and this is supported by appropriate behaviours that draw from the immediate and
wider academic learning environment as well as personal preferences in terms of the habits and
strategies that students employ to assist themselves.
These theoretical propositions advance our understanding of first-year student experience
and permit the application of these theoretical propositions to a theoretical framework that can
provide greater depth of understanding and potential application to the immediate and wider
contexts in which first-year students are engaged.
6.6 APPLICATION OF THEORY: SPECTRUM OF ENGAGEMENT
FRAMEWORK
The experience of first-year Bachelor of Education (Primary) students at the Brisbane
Campus of ACU is complex, multifaceted, and unique. The Spectrum of Engagement
Framework (SOEF) to be outlined in this section is a theoretical framework created by the
researcher as is for understanding and representing the dynamic nature of this engagement by
first-year Bachelor of Education (Primary) students across the three dimensions of findings
advanced by this thesis. The SOEF incorporates the findings nested within personal, social, and
academic dimensions detailed above and advanced in the theoretical propositions. These have
been generated from the literature that incorporates Deep, Surface and Achieving learning
approaches and the work of Pittaway (2012). The SOEF further establishes that in the
engagement of these dimensions there are fundamental engagement strategies that influence the
quality of this engagement, and these are detailed in the criteria sheet shown in Figure 6.1. In
addition, the interaction of the dimensions of engagement with the level of application results
in the location of three levels (low, middle, or high) of this overall engagement experience. This
192 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
engagement framework therefore serves as a resource for understanding, interpreting, and
supporting the experiences of first-year Bachelor of Education (Primary) students.
Chapter 6: Discussion of Findings and Study Conclusions 193
Engagement
Dimensions
Engagement
Strategies
Classification Levels and Engagement Indicators
Low
Middle
High
Personal Dimension
Developing a
Student identity
Facilitating self-
knowledge and a
clear learning
purpose
Limited interest in
developing a student
identity
Partial emergence of a
student identity
Development of a strong
student identity
Developing
motivation
Limited motivation
Partial motivation
emerging
Motivated and enthusiastic
in class
Validation of self
by staff
Limited validation from
staff
Class attendance and some
participation with staff
Active engagement with
content and lecturer
Validation of self
by students
Limited validation from
students
Class attendance and some
participation with students
Active participation with
students
Orientation Day
Promoting
relationships and
support through
individualised
programs
No involvement in
Orientation Day
Attended Orientation Day,
but did not connect with
peers
Attended Orientation Day
and developed a network
Mentoring Program
No involvement with the
Mentoring Program
Enrolled in program but
limited contact with mentor
Program enrolment and
constant connection with
mentor and interest in
becoming a mentee
Social Dimension
Study groups that
support learning
Enabling student
autonomy in
selection process
Minimal contact inside and
outside of class
Some peer connection in
study groups with limited
contact outside of class
Active engagement with
peers in setting up study
groups
Friendship groups
that support
learning
Minimal contact inside and
outside of class
Some peer connection with
friendship groups with
limited contact outside of
class
Active engagement with
peers in setting up
friendship groups
Involvement with
social clubs
Communicating
expectations and
recognising
financial capacity
No interest in social clubs
Emerging interest but
without participation
Active interest and
participation in social clubs
Involvement with
sport clubs
No interest in sport clubs
Emerging interest but
without participation
Active interest and
participation in sport clubs
Academic Dimension
Establishing a
study–life balance
Advocating an
integrated approach
to life and study
Non-class attendance with
inadequate study–life
balance
Class attendance with
gradual balance in study–
life commitments
Substantive university
attendance with balance in
study–life commitments
Seeking advice
from OSS staff
Study habits and
time management
Support for learning
how to study at
university
Struggling with time
management and no
participation in study skills
programs
Learning to manage their
time and can use
appropriate study strategies
with support
Becoming independent
learners who are able to
manage their time and use
appropriate study strategies
Removing stigma
associated with
participation in
Academic Skills
programs
Minimal interest in seeking
assistance from Academic
Skills staff
Some interest in seeking
assistance from Academic
Skills staff
Actively seeking assistance
from Academic Skills staff
Engaging lectures
with positive
strategies
Engaging
proactively to
support own
learning
Limited engagement and
strategies within lectures
Moderate engagement and
strategies within lectures
Excellent engagement and
strategies within lectures
Response level to
written and verbal
feedback
Limited feedback from
staff
Good feedback from staff
Constructive feedback from
staff
Group work and
active participation
Limited enjoyment of
group work
Partial participation in
group work
Engaged fully in group
work
Figure 6.1. Spectrum of Engagement Framework (SOEF) criteria sheet.
194 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
Worthy of note is that Figure 6.1 outlines the three dimensions of the SOEF, engagement
dimensions, engagement strategies, and the classification levels with the inclusion of
engagement indicators descriptives. These have been generated from the interviews conducted
in the Inspection Phase of the study and discussed in Chapter 5.
As this framework represents a spectrum of engagement, it is possible to see the
differences in engagement level through a model that emphasises the personal, social, and
academic dimensions of engagement. For example, in Figure 6.2, the point at which each of the
dimensions overlap is seen as the central point shaded in orange and is large in size, representing
the level of student engagement.
Figure 6.2. Model representing high level of engagement for personal, social, and academic
dimensions.
Drawing on some data previously presented, it is possible to demonstrate the level of
engagement to reflect the attitudes of students who were fully engaged with their university
life, making comments such as the following for personal–social overlap:
Chapter 6: Discussion of Findings and Study Conclusions 195
People who are real, aren’t afraid to question things and go out of their way to
clarify it, read all the information and move forward … I’m drawn to the same
people with the same needs and interests as me. It’s important to develop those
friendships particularly at the start … apart from the stress of uni, having friends
and forming friendships makes it all more manageable. (Sue II, Phase 2, Step 4)
and this for personal–academic overlap:
Even though I was informed about Academic Skill[s] during Orientation Day and
attended some workshops, it was great that they came to classes, as this assisted
me as a reminder to use them and what’s on offer and they can help with your
work ... I thought, “Well if this is being offered, why not take advantage of it?” ...
I’ve used them a lot and it’s definitely helped. The workshops are really useful as
well. (Sue II, Phase 2, Step 4)
and for social–academic overlap:
You quickly become friends with them because you find they are really interested
in terms of the same beliefs, maybe opinions, and you can just approach someone
and just say “hi” and become fast friends. Because of this, it helped me to stay at
uni and not to quit. (Rob II, Phase 2, Step 4)
A comment typical of high engagement across all aspects is the following:
After participating in the program as a mentee and learning where things were
early, I now would like to join up to be a mentor ... It’s a great concept and I can
certainly see the benefits and would like to give back to the program. (Mary II,
Phase 2, Step 4)
Figure 6.2 is reflective of the high level of engagement and is characterised by the descriptors
detailed in Table 6.1 for high level engagement.
In contrast to this figure, those students who actively restricted their interactions with
others have a very different shape for engagement. This is evident in Figure 6.3 with a very
small level of engagement represented by the orange section.
196 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
Figure 6.3. Model representing low level of engagement for personal, social and academic
dimensions.
This figure represents those students who prefer limited interaction, and as a result, the
overlap between their personal, social, and academic dimensions is small. The limited personal–
social overlap is represented by typical comments such as the following:
I am independent on that respect ... family and university are the priority for me.
I don’t need friends at uni, I come here to study, and I leave. I’ve got too much
happening outside of uni to bother with that. (Bridget II, Phase 2, Step 4)
They also do not allow their personal academic achievements to be supported by services such
as Academic Skills workshops. As we now understand, students with low entry scores attached
a negative stigma to attending Academic Skills workshops as evidenced by the following quote:
“I don’t attend as I don’t want to be perceived as dumb and that I needed help because I entered
uni off a different pathway” (Rob II, Phase 2, Step 4). This is represented by the minimal
overlap we can see between their engagement with personal and academic dimensions. These
Chapter 6: Discussion of Findings and Study Conclusions 197
students also failed to join student and friendship groups. They kept to themselves and
prioritised their contacts outside university. This is represented by the low level of overlap
between the social and academic dimensions resulting in limited engagement, as represented
by the following comment:
I’ve come back to uni at my age. So, it’s a combination of proving this to myself,
I can do this and achieve this. It’s those first steps of being accepted. It’s your
tutor telling you: “You’re doing a good job.” It’s the validation that you are
capable and committed. I’m not here for a holiday. I’m here to work and to achieve
high grades … I’m here to learn and my answers should be validated. I felt I
wanted to quit, because I wasn’t getting that. (Bridget II, Phase 2, Step 4)
A comment typical of low engagement across all aspects is the following:
It seems non-attendance of lectures and tutorials is because how some classes are
conducted and how busy students are and how they need to allocate their time to
other things outside of university. (Aidan I1, Phase 2, Step 3)
These figures represent the spectrum of engagement from a very high level of engagement
in Figure 6.2 to a low level of engagement in Figure 6.3. Figure 6.1 outlined the dimensions
and the descriptors for each level of engagement, and the understandings of the overlapping of
dimensions drew on quotes previously displayed in Chapter 5 as a way to support understanding
of this model and the level of student engagement. Figure 6.1 also included an additional
component of the SOEF, being engagement strategies. These strategies vary according to the
types of connections students make with each dimension.
Representation of the components of the SOEF is a reflection of the participants’
commentary and the researcher’s interpretation of the experiences of first-year Bachelor of
Education (Primary) students. Moreover, the SOEF is broad and complex involving different
qualities and classification levels. Further, once an appreciation of engagement classification
has been achieved, the framework serves as a mechanism to review, prioritise, and renew
engagement activities. Here the student can reflect on their level of engagement and make
198 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
changes to it. Moreover, university staff can review and support engagement, which in turn,
generates a different classification of engagement and serves to reinforce engagement quality.
Figure 6.4 illustrates the dynamic application of the framework. The framework
incorporates the three dimensions of engagement for first-year Bachelor of Education (Primary)
students and identifies engagement strategies as mediating influences on students’ engagement,
which leads to a level of engagement classified as low, middle, and high. Learning styles are
intentionally not included in this framework, but they are inherent within the personal, social
and academic dimensions as the specific learning styles will depend on the outcomes of the
SOESAT for each individual student.
Figure 6.4. Spectrum of Engagement Framework (SOEF).
The vertical and return arrows within the extremity of the figure indicate the cyclical
nature of the SOEF and reinforce engagement characteristics as comprehensive, flexible, and
Chapter 6: Discussion of Findings and Study Conclusions 199
responsive to individual students and their personal differences, their responses to interaction
with others, and their own reflective meaning making process. The presentation of two of the
aspects of the SOEF, dimensions and engagement strategies, are embedded in a “funnel”, while
the classification levels are at the exit of the funnel. These indicate that engagement processes
are initially very broad and are refined as students begin to engage with the supports the
university provides. Further, it is when engagement is influenced by varying strategies that have
different levels of quality (engagement strategies) that the outcomes are deduced and can be
precisely classified and, where necessary, supported strategically. However, if this does not
occur immediately or simultaneously, then the process repeats itself by way of the return arrows
until students determine where their engagement strategies and levels fall.
The conceptualisation of first-year university engagement through the SOEF can be
applied and extended through the development of the Spectrum of Engagement Self-
Assessment Tool (SOESAT; see Appendix N) The application of this tool allows students to
take some responsibility for their progress at university. This tool allows students to complete
each section of the tool during Semester 1 so that they can self-monitor their level of
engagement. Completion of the tool means that each dimension can be graded by the students
to see where they may “fall” in each category, being low, middle, or high levels of engagement.
Students can then make decisions to change their priorities in response to their own reflection
or make firm decisions to continue to proceed with existing strategies. It is also possible for
students to complete the self-assessment tool and then discuss the results with a staff member
as a form of support. The personal dimension of SOESAT is included as Figure 6.5 to
demonstrate that aspect of the self-assessment nature of the tool. Here the students will quantify
their level of engagement and, as part of the summary, assess what they need to do to increase
their level of engagement by answering the questions, What engagement conclusions have I
reached? and What engagement priorities need to be actioned? These sections of the tool are
displayed as Figure 6.6. It is important to note that the aggregate scores within this tool are
200 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
different for each dimension as the number of items in each dimension vary in number. The
maximum of 5 points per item can be awarded for each item. Consequently, the possible score
for each dimension is different. The possible total score for personal is 35, social is 25 and
academic is 50.
Personal dimensions of engagement: Reflective of who you are as a student
Please consider and respond to the following
statements on your personal engagement at university.
Strongly
Agree
5
Agree
4
Neither
3
Disagree
2
Strongly
Disagree
1
I attended Orientation Day
I am involved with the peer mentor program and
became a mentee
I am motivated by my learning groups
I am motivated to study with peers
I have developed a student identity through interaction
with others
I feel validated by staff in class through my
interactions
I feel validated by students in class through my
interactions with them
Figure 6.5. Personal dimensions of engagement reflection.
Chapter 6: Discussion of Findings and Study Conclusions 201
Summary of Self-Assessment Levels of Engagement
Please add each score to quantify where your engagement levels fall.
Personal score: 35–25 High engagement 24–17 Middle engagement 16–0 Low engagement
Social score: 25–19 High engagement 18–11 Middle engagement 10–0 Low engagement
Academic score: 50–41 High engagement 40–25 Middle engagement 24–0 Low engagement
Personal
Score out of 35
Social
Score out of 25
Academic
Score out of 50
What engagement conclusions have I reached?
What engagement priorities need to be actioned?
Figure 6.6. Summary of self-assessment levels of engagement.
6.7 CONTRIBUTION TO THE FIELD
6.7.1 Contribution to new knowledge
This study concludes that the location of personal, social, and academic dimensions of
engagement, engagement strategies, and classification of levels of engagement can identify the
level of overall engagement of a first-year university student. To represent these conclusions,
the SOEF, a theoretical model of the relationship between the elements, has been developed.
To bring the theoretical model back to a practical contribution to the field, the SOESAT has
been developed.
The interaction of the dimensions of engagement classifies student engagement as low,
middle, and high. This classification offers an understanding and general measure of student
engagement and provides rationales for supportive student learning interventions. This study
concludes that first-year university engagement is a complex process involving the interaction
and nomination of aspects of experience that are influenced by quality practices and differing
202 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
levels of student interaction. The overall process of engagement is characterised and
conceptualised as follows:
• multidimensional and inclusive of personal, social, and academic dimensions;
• dynamic and integrative;
• supported strategically by reflection on personal-, social-, and academic-sensitive
experiences;
• a way to monitor and support student engagement through the SOESAT.
6.7.2 Contribution to practice
To bring the theoretical model back to a practical contribution to the field, the SOESAT
has been developed and is attached as Appendix N. In addition, this study has four conclusions
that contribute to new practice.
Identification of engagement dimensions
The research identifies three dimensions of engagement for first-year university students:
personal, social, and academic dimensions that individually and jointly influence the quality of
student engagement. These dimensions are lenses for university academic staff to understand
the students’ world. Involvement in supporting student engagement would therefore need to be
mindful of each student’s individual engagement dimensions and their relationships with
students and staff.
Engagement strategies that maximise engagement
Within the dimensions of engagement, the research establishes that there exist supportive
practices (engagement strategies) that maximise the quality of student engagement. These
strategies serve to build on the dimensions of engagement and add quality to student insights
and interventions. These strategies are outlined in Figure 6.1 and reflect personal, social, and
academic dimensions based on quality of engagement, being low, middle, and high within the
SOEF. For the convenience of the reader the strategies are detailed below:
Chapter 6: Discussion of Findings and Study Conclusions 203
• facilitating self-knowledge and a clear learning purpose;
• promoting relationships and support through individualised programs;
• enabling student autonomy in selection process;
• advocating an integrated approach to life and study;
• support for learning how to study at university;
• removing stigma associated with participation in Academic Skills programs; and
• engaging proactively to support own learning.
Classification of student engagement as a mechanism for monitoring and support
The dimensions of engagement, together with the adoption of strategies that promote
engagement, enable students to complete the SOESAT to classify their own engagement as low,
middle, or high. The purpose of such classification is to allow for identification of student
engagement opportunities and for the prioritisation of these opportunities to facilitate targeted
engagement with a view to advancing learning outcomes.
Monitoring student engagement
Monitoring of student engagement may be supported by the application of the SOEF. For
the student’s lecturer, the importance of the SOEF is its capacity to monitor student progress
and to provide specific information for staff to tactically respond with appropriate learning
support. In this context, the SOEF provides the basis for a review of engagement quality for
each student. It is also important for each student to monitor their own engagement levels
through the SOESAT and engage in the supports offered by the university. Students and staff
can work collaboratively and begin to develop partnerships through monitoring engagement on
campus collectively.
6.8 RECOMMENDATIONS
This study offers recommendations that emanate from the research conclusions. They
represent suggestions by which all those involved in the education of pre-service Bachelor of
204 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
Education (Primary) students can move to enhance their practice for developing student
engagement with a view to minimising the current “at risk of not completing first year” rate
reported as being 30% (Baik et al., 2015, p. 1). These recommendations take two forms, further
research and policy change.
6.8.1 Further research
• The SOESAT to be piloted, trialled, and used to promote greater understanding of
how students engage with experiences during their first year of university as a way to
support all students who enter university.
• Invite researchers to use and modify the SOEF and SOESAT as appropriate to their
context.
6.8.2 Policy change
• Non-academic staff involved with first-year students to be proactive in understanding
their students’ engagement. This may be achieved through effective means of
monitoring first-year engagement such as the use of the SOEF and the associated
SOESAT. The monitoring of student engagement invites all personnel into
responsibilities in support of the efficacy of first-year engagement.
• As students with low entry scores are being enrolled, cross-campus sharing of
university resources, such as the SOEF, and engaging personnel to enhance the
learning of first-year students invites the review of policy, particularly concerning the
allocation of finances and staff resources to assist in the management of first-year
university engagement.
• Universities should appoint a first-year coordinator for each faculty to develop,
implement, and support practices of student engagement across the university,
particularly for those with low entry scores.
Chapter 6: Discussion of Findings and Study Conclusions 205
• Early intervention and continuing support in first year: The university seeks to support
first-year students through a variety of programs offered prior to the commencement
of scheduled classes. While these can’t be comprehensively sustained on an individual
basis, some of this support is offered on a continuing basis for first-year students,
particularly as academic expectations increase across the year. It is during these “busy
times” that students seek guidance and assistance not only from the academic staff,
but also from professional staff and personal counsellors. Knowing that there is
additional support from staff allows first-year students to take advantage of this
support, allowing them to take responsibility for their own learning in ways that
maximise their engagement and contribute to learning outcomes.
6.9 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
Study limitations were discussed in Chapter 4. Beyond these limitations, a further three
limitations presented during the course of the study.
First, it was expected that a large proportion of the 150 students enrolled in the Bachelor
of Education (Primary) would complete the SPQ prior to the commencement of lectures, which
would have allowed pre- and post-testing through using paired samples t testing. Thirty-four of
the 150 students completed the SPQ at this time. At the conclusion of the semester, none of
these students completed the SPQ again. Instead, 56 students who had not completed it at the
commencement of the semester completed it at the conclusion of the semester. This return rate
forced the decision to conduct independent samples t testing on the data retrieved. What can be
learned from this limitation is that it would benefit the study if the same cohort of participants
completed SPQ1 and SPQ2 and therefore, data can be compared across the semester.
Second, it was not the intention of the researcher to interview academic staff who taught
first-year students in the Bachelor of Education (Primary) degree as this study was focused on
understanding how first-year students experienced supports provided by the university and
206 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
university life. However, upon further consideration, this would have been another opportunity
to broaden and deepen the data to include an understanding of the perceptions of academic staff
who provide many of the supports to these students.
Third, at the commencement of this study, it was considered inappropriate to ask
participating students if they had gained entry through low entry scores or alternative pathways,
and this caution is also recorded in the research literature (McKay & Devlin, 2016). I now
realise that this would have allowed greater support to be provided for these particular students
who had captured my attention in the beginning and to whom I want to provide every
opportunity to enhance learning success.
6.10 CONCLUSION
The impetus for this study was a concern for first-year Bachelor of Education (Primary)
students, and whether students experienced or engaged with the university support services
offered by the university. My interest also grew from my experiences of teaching first-year
Bachelor of Education (Primary) students. Within this context there developed a passion to
understand and optimise learning experiences for all students, particularly those who had gained
entry to the degree with low scores or through alternative pathway entry. The research explored
how to understand the way first-year Bachelor of Education (Primary) students at ACU on the
Brisbane campus experience supports offered by the university and university life.
This study emphasised the nature and practices within first-year university engagement
and offers perspectives for future research and policy change on this important and complex
phenomenon. It also provides tools to assist academics to be proactive in the provision of
engagement opportunities for the students themselves to understand their own engagement and
prioritise that engagement.
Chapter 6: Discussion of Findings and Study Conclusions 207
As I feel I am now more informed on the topic of first-year student engagement, I will
continue my journey to provide greater care and support for first-year students, across all
universities, through my research community.
References 209
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Appendices 231
Appendices
Appendix A
Email to Students and Staff
Invitation to students inviting them to volunteer to participate in the focus groups and individual
interviews.
Research Project – Student experiences in their first year at an Australian university: A
case study
Conducted by: Katie O’Brien – Doctor of Education Student
Dear Student,
You are invited to participate in focus group interviews and individual interviews at the end of
semester 1 and during the June/July break. The questions asked will relate to how you
approach university study and your first-year university experiences.
If you wish to participate, please return this email to Carmel Turner at
[email protected], Course Co-ordinator and further correspondence will be sent to
you regarding a convenient time for you to participate.
Kind regards,
Katie O’Brien
(via Carmel Turner)
Initial invitation to staff inviting them to volunteer to participate in the individual interviews.
Research Project – Student experiences in their first year at an Australian university: A
case study
Conducted by: Katie O’Brien – Doctor of Education Student
Dear Staff,
You are invited to participate in individual interviews to share your experiences when
teaching at an Australian university. These will take place between at the end of semester 2. If
you wish to participate, please return this email to me and further correspondence will be sent
to you regarding how to be involved.
Kind regards,
Katie O’Brien
232 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
Appendix B
Study Process Questionnaire, Consent Process and SPQ Qualtrics Consent
Study Process Questionnaire
Consent for the completion of the SPQ will be obtained via an online consent process via the
Bachelor of Education (Primary) LEO site and the consent letter provided. If you agree to
participate in this questionnaire, please click yes and you will be taken to the questionnaire. If
you do not wish to participate, please click no.
Study Process Questionnaire
There are 45 items on this survey that collect data on your first-year experience. For each of the
first 42 items there five options on a scale of 5–1. A response is shown by selecting one of the
five options. Please choose the response that best suits you. The final three items on the
questionnaire collect your demographic and confidential data.
1. I chose my present courses largely because of the better professional opportunities when I
graduate rather than out of their own interest to me.
2. I find that at times studying gives me a feeling of deep personal satisfaction.
3. I want top grades in most or all of my courses so that I will be able to select from among
the best positions when I graduate.
4. I think browsing around is a waste of time, so I only study seriously what’s handed out in
class or in the course outlines.
5. While I am studying, I often think of real-life situations to which the material that I am
learning would be useful.
6. I summarize suggested readings and include these as part of my notes on a topic.
7. I am discouraged by a poor mark on a test and worry about how I will do on the next test.
8. While I realise that truth is forever changing as knowledge is increasing, I feel driven to
discover what appears to me to be the truth at this time.
9. I have a strong desire to do my best in all my studies.
10. I learn some things by rote, going over and over them until I know them by heart.
11. In reading new material I often find that I am continually reminded of material I already
know and see that old material in a new way now.
Appendices 233
12. I try to work consistently throughout the term and review regularly when the exams are
close.
13. Whether I like it or not, I. can see that further education is for me a good way to get a well
paid and secure job.
14. I feel that any topic can be very interesting once I put effort into it.
15. I would see myself as an ambitious person; I want to get to the top in whatever I do.
16. I tend to choose subjects with a lot of factual content rather than theoretical kinds of
subjects.
17. I find that I have to do enough work on a topic so that I can form my own point of view
before I am satisfied.
18. I try to do all of my assignments as soon as possible after they are given out.
19. Even when I have studied hard for a test, I worry that I may not be able to do well in it.
20. I find that writing an assignment can at times grab my interest, so that I will continue with
it and not get distracted.
21. If it came to the point, I would be prepared to sacrifice my immediate popularity with my
fellow students for success in my studies and subsequent career.
22. In studying I generally do what the lecturer says to do; it is unnecessary to do anything
extra.
23. I try to relate what I have learned in one subject to that in another.
24. After a lecture I reread my notes to make sure they are readable and that I understand
them.
25. Lecturers should not expect students to spend time studying material which everyone
knows will not be examined.
26.I usually become increasingly interested in my work the more I do it.
27. One of the most important considerations in choosing a course is whether or not I will be
able to get top marks in it.
28. I learn best from lecturers who work from carefully prepared notes and outline major
points neatly on the board or use multimedia to express an idea.
29.I find most new topics interesting and often spend extra time trying to obtain more
information about them.
234 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
30. I test myself on important topics until I understand them completely.
31. I do not really like having to spend years studying after leaving school but feel that the
end results will make it all worthwhile.
32. I believe strongly that my main aim in life is to discover what I believe are the best rules
to live by and to act strictly in accordance with them.
33. I see getting high grades as a kind of game, and I want to be one of the winners; I like to
be better than most others.
34. I find it best to accept the statements and ideas of my lecturers and question them only
under special circumstances.
35. I spend my free time finding out more about interesting topics which I have discussed in
different classes.
36. I make a point of looking at some of the suggested readings that go with the lectures.
37. I am at university mainly because I feel that I will be able to obtain a better job if I have
these qualifications.
38. My studies have changed my views about such things as politics, my religion, and my
philosophy of life.
39. I believe that society is based on competition and schools, colleges and universities should
reflect this.
40. I am very aware that lecturers know a lot more than I do and so I concentrate on what they
say is important, rather than rely on my own judgements and opinions.
41. I try to relate new material, as I am reading it, to what I already know on that topic.
42. I keep well organised notes for most subjects.
Are you male of female?
Please choose the correct response.
Are you are school leaver?
Are you a non recent school leaver?
Please include your mother’s maiden name and the number of your house.
This is used to identify your participation and is confidential.
End of questionnaire.
Thank you for participating.
Appendices 235
Appendix C
Study Process Questionnaire Participant Information Letter
PROJECT TITLE: Student experiences in their first year at an Australian university: A case
study.
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Associate Professor Denis McLaughlin
STUDENT RESEARCHER: Katie O’Brien
STUDENT’S DEGREE: Doctor of Education
Dear Participant,
You are invited to participate in the research project described below.
What is the project about?
The research offers you an opportunity to share your opinions about your first-year experience
at university. The research is important as it may contribute to further research in this area and
it may contribute to better understanding how students engage with their first year of
university study.
Who is undertaking the project?
This project is being conducted by Katie O’Brien and will form the basis for the degree of
Doctor of Education at Australian Catholic University under the supervision of Associate
Professor Denis McLaughlin.
Are there any risks associated with participating in this project?
There are no foreseeable risks associated with this research. However, if you feel that you do
not wish to participate, then there is no obligation and no consequences.
What will I be asked to do?
You will be invited to volunteer to participate in this research. If you participate you will be
required to:
• Complete two online questionnaires (Study Process Questionnaire) over the course of
Semester One, 2014. Each will take approximately 20 minutes. Informed consent is
obtained from the research participants and their rights outlined. Consent will be
obtained via the online questionnaire.
The types of questions asked will relate to how you approach university study and your
university experiences. You will be invited to volunteer to complete a questionnaire twice in
2014. These will occur at the beginning and end of Semester One. An initial invitation will be
sent via student email in February 2014, then a second request will be sent via student email in
May 2014.
What are the benefits of the research project?
There are no immediate minimal benefits to the participants. Although, the intention is for them
to share their university experiences with the researcher.
Can I withdraw from the study?
Participation in this study is completely voluntary. You are not under any obligation to
participate. If you agree to participate, you can withdraw from the study at any time without
adverse consequences. Although once the questionnaire is submitted, you cannot withdraw the
survey, but can still withdraw from the research and future contacts. Non-participation or
withdrawal will not affect your ongoing enrolment.
236 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
Will anyone else know the results of the project?
The study or parts thereof may be published in Australian or International Educational
Journals and the final thesis. Participants will not be identified in any publications. Responses
are reported in coded form and participants are non-identifiable for confidentiality.
Will I be able to find out the results of the project?
The final thesis will be made available for those students who participated. It will be the
decision of the participants to follow up this process.
Who do I contact if I have questions about the project?
Questions regarding this research should be directed to me at katie.o’[email protected];
(0410109307) or my Principal Supervisor, Associate Professor Denis McLaughlin (07 3623
7154); [email protected]; or:
Faculty of Education
Australian Catholic University
PO Box 456
Banyo Queensland 4014
What if I have a complaint or any concerns?
The study has been approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee at Australian Catholic
University (approval number 2013 157Q). If you have any complaints or concerns about the
conduct of the project, you may write to the Chair of the Human Research Ethics Committee
care of the Office of the Deputy Vice Chancellor (Research).
Chair, HREC
c/o Office of the Deputy Vice Chancellor (Research)
Australian Catholic University
Melbourne Campus
Locked Bag 4115
FITZROY, VIC, 3065
Ph: 03 9953 3150
Fax: 03 9953 3315
Email: [email protected]
Any complaint or concern will be treated in confidence and fully investigated. You will be
informed of the outcome.
I want to participate! How do I sign up?
If you consent to complete the questionnaire, please follow the link www.qualtrics.com.au.
Your participation or non-participation in this research does not disadvantage you with your
continued study. Your identity in all aspects of this research remain strictly anonymous and
confidential.
Thank you for your participation. It would be appreciated if you wish to complete the Study
Process Questionnaire to please do so by XXX via the available link above.
Yours sincerely,
Katie O’Brien
Denis McLaughlin
Appendices 237
Appendix D
Semi-Structured In-Depth Focus Group Interview Protocol
Before turning the tape recorder on:
1. Explain the purpose of the interview.
Thank you for taking the time to meet with me today. As you know, I am interested in
understanding how you experience your first year at university. I am going to be asking you
questions about your personal experiences, your strategies for learning, the units you are
enrolled in, assessment, and, about learning environments and lecturers.
2. Consent Process: Ask each participant if s/he has not already completed consent forms.
Participants sign a copy of the consent form for them to keep and for the Interviewer to keep
(2 copies in total). In all cases, tell the participant:
Before we begin the interview, I want to remind you that participating in this study is
voluntary and your responses are completely confidential. At any point during the interview,
if any of you would like me to turn off the recorder, just tell me to do so. Do you have any
questions about the study before we begin?
Turn the recorder on
It is XX date at XX time. This is Katie O’Brien and I am interviewing first-year students in a
focus group.
I am going to ask a few introductory questions to begin the interview and then move to more
targeted questions about your experience at university this year so far.
PRIOR TO ATTENDING UNIVERSITY
I’m now going to ask a question about your previous life experiences before university,
whether it be school or work.
1. Prior to coming to university, you had other life experiences, work or school. What’s
the difference been like?
2. Have your previous life experiences assisted you to transition into university life?
STUDENTS’ EXPERIENCES AFTER ONE SEMESTER OF STUDY
Experience
1. You’ve experienced 12 weeks now, a full semester of university. So, tell me, what did
you expect university life to be like in the beginning?
238 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
Prompt
a. Has it been as you expected? Why or why not?
2. Can you tell me about what you like about being a uni student?
Prompts
a. Can you describe some positive experiences?
b. Can you describe any disappointing experiences?
i. Are there any strategies that the lecturer might have implemented to assist
you with these disappointments?
3. Would anyone like to add anything else?
Learning
1. What have you done to assist your own learning to get ready for your lectures?
Prompts
a. Reading lecture notes
b. Pre-readings of text books
c. Have study groups to revise previous week’s work
d. Organise your timetable
e. Rote learn
2. What have you done to assist your own learning to get ready for your assignments?
Prompts
a. Have you attended Academic Skills workshops?
b. Are you a member of a study group?
i. Do you have a study group timetable?
ii. When do you begin to work on assignments?
c. Have you completed a library search to seek references?
d. Have you made an appointment with the librarian?
3. Do you have any things that might assist you in your independent learning that you
find are beneficial?
4. What sort of feelings can you describe when you think about your study and
university?
Prompts
a. Happy?
b. Sad?
c. Satisfied?
Appendices 239
5. Name some interesting things about the units you are studying.
6. Do you research different or new topics that might be of interest to you?
7. Do you just stick to the content of the unit?
8. What grades do you try to achieve?
9. Do you put your top effort into all your units?
10. Now I’m going to ask you questions about other strategies that assist or do not assist
you.
Engagement
I’m going to ask you a few questions relating to your engagement in your first year of study.
1. What subjects do you like the best? Why?
2. Why do you think it’s the best?
3. What subjects do you like the least? Why?
Assessment
I’m going to ask you some assessment related questions now.
1. In terms of the assessments that you’ve had for all your units, what have you enjoyed?
2. What sort of test preparation do you participate in?
3. Part of your assessment has been to reflect on your learning. Do you think you have
developed the necessary skills to be more reflective? If so, explain why.
Prompts
a. And as a teacher, potentially that reflective practice is something that you look
upon every day?
b. And would that assist you to do better and research a little bit more for the next
piece of assessment?
WHAT UNI OFFERS
So, we’ll just move on to the last couple of questions about your learning through the first
semester and your lecturers.
1. What have they done to engage you in your learning?
Prompts
a. What strategies have lecturers used that worked for you as individuals?
b. Online learning activities?
240 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
c. Multimedia interactive activities, for example, YouTube clips?
2. How did that engage you?
3. Would you say that this style of teaching builds a staff–student relationship?
4. Do you feel that university is a competitive environment?
Prompt
a. If so, how?
CLOSING STATEMENT
Thank you everyone. If there is nothing more to say, then that draws us to the conclusion.
Appendices 241
Appendix E
Consent Form (Student)
Copy for Participant (Student) to Keep
TITLE OF PROJECT: STUDENT EXPERIENCES IN THEIR FIRST YEAR AT AN
AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITY: A CASE STUDY
PRINCIPAL SUPERVISOR: Associate Professor Denis McLaughlin
STUDENT RESEARCHER (if applicable): Katie O’Brien
I ................................................... (the participant) have read (or, where appropriate, have had
read to me) and understood the information provided in the Letter to Participants. Any questions
I have asked have been answered to my satisfaction. I agree to participate in (Please tick your
choice). You may wish to participate in both or just one.
• Semi structured in depth
focus group interview
• Semi structured in depth
individual interview
Both will be audio taped and I realise that I can withdraw my consent at any time (without
adverse consequences). I agree that research data collected for the study may be published or
may be provided to other researchers in a form that does not identify me in any way.
NAME OF PARTICIPANT: ......................................................................................................
My contact details are:
Mobile:
Student email address:
SIGNATURE ..................................................................... DATE .................................
SIGNATURE OF PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR (or SUPERVISOR): ....................................
DATE:………………………..
SIGNATURE OF STUDENT RESEARCHER: ..........................................................................
DATE:………………………..
242 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
Appendix F
Semi-Structured In-Depth Individual Interview Protocol (Students)
Before turning the tape recorder on:
1. Explain the purpose of the interview.
Thank you for taking the time to meet with me today. As you know, I am interested in
understanding how you experience your first year at university. I am going to be asking you
questions about your personal experience and ideas that came from the focus groups that I
thought were interesting to explore further.
2. Consent Process: Ask each participant if s/he has not already completed consent forms.
Participants sign a copy of the consent form for them to keep and for the Interviewer to
keep (2 copies in total). In all cases, tell the participant:
Before we begin the interview, I want to remind you that participating in this study is
voluntary and your responses are completely confidential. At any point during the interview,
if any of you would like me to turn off the recorder, just tell me to do so. Do you have any
questions about the study before we begin?
Turn the recorder on
It is XX date at XX time. This is Katie O’Brien and I am interviewing one first-year student
every half an hour in semi-structured in-depth individual interviews.
I am going to ask a few introductory questions to begin the interview and then move to more
targeted questions about your experience at university this year so far.
PRIOR TO ATTENDING UNIVERSITY
I’m now going to ask a question about Orientation Day.
1. What are your thoughts regarding Orientation Day?
2. How did it assist you prior to starting classes?
3. Were you aware that the university sought to assist you prior to university
commencing?
a. If yes, what did the university provide?
STUDENTS’ EXPERIENCES AFTER ONE SEMESTER OF STUDY
Experience
1. Do you think you were ready to enter university when you did?
Appendices 243
Prompts
a. Has it been as you expected? Why or why not?
2. Does your entrance score, OP, ATAR or other results show a true reflection of your
capability?
a. Can you share with me your journey prior to entering university?
b. What results do you strive to achieve?
3. How does life fit around your study and vice versa?
4. What motivated you to come to university?
5. What motivated you to become a teacher?
Learning
1. What strategies do you use to assist your learning?
Prompt
a. How has time management played a role in your university attendance?
2. Do you have any things that might assist you in your independent learning that you
find beneficial?
3. Do you get stressed about university study?
a. If yes, what causes you stress?
4. Tell me what you see as a major challenge in first year so far?
Engagement
I’m going to ask you a few questions relating to your engagement in your first semester of
study.
1. What subjects do you like the best?
Prompt
a. Why do you think it’s the best?
2. What subjects do you like the least?
Prompt
a. Why is it the least enjoyable?
Friendships
I’m going to ask you about forming peer networks and friendships at university.
1. How have you formed relationships at university?
2. How have these relationships impacted your learning?
3. How have these relationships impacted your engagement in classes?
4. How have these relationships impacted your attendance?
244 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
Assessment
I’m going to ask you some assessment related questions now.
1. What’s the hardest piece of assessment you have undertaken?
a. Why?
2. What sort of feedback did you receive?
Prompts
a. Written?
b. Verbal?
c. Positive?
d. Negative?
e. Ways to improve your work?
WHAT UNI OFFERS
So, we’ll just move on to the last couple of questions about your learning through the first
semester.
1. Have you used Academic Skills in your first year?
Prompts
a. Why?
b. Why not?
2. How many workshops or sessions that the OSS ran did you attend?
Prompt
a. Why?
3. Have you used the library to assist you with assessment?
4. How many lectures and tutorials did you attend for each of your subjects?
5. Were you engaged in the classes?
Prompt
a. How were you engaged?
CLOSING STATEMENT
Thank you everyone. If there is nothing more to say, then that draws us to the conclusion.
Appendices 245
Appendix G
Semi-Structured In-Depth Individual Interview Protocol—Case Studies
Before turning the tape recorder on:
1. Explain the purpose of the interview.
Thank you for taking the time to meet with me today. In the previous interviews, you related
strongly to (Sense of Belonging or Peer networking and diverse social groups or Engagement
in and outside of class).
The following questions are going to probe your perspective further.
2. Consent Process: Ask participant if s/he has not already completed consent forms.
Participants sign a copy of the consent form for them to keep and for the Interviewer to
keep (2 copies in total). In all cases, tell the participant:
Before we begin the interview, I want to remind you that participating in this study is
voluntary and your responses are completely confidential. At any point during the interview,
if any of you would like me to turn off the recorder, just tell me to do so. Do you have any
questions about the study before we begin?
Turn the recorder on
It is XX date at XX time. This is Katie O’Brien and I am interviewing one student per half an
hour for the semi-structured in-depth individual interviews (case studies).
PATHWAYS TO UNIVERSITY
1. What has brought you to university?
2. What was your career prior to university?
a. Stay at home parent?
b. School leaver?
c. Non-recent school leaver?
d. Previous university experience?
3. What was your pathway to university?
4. Did you receive good career advice during school?
a. What advice was given?
5. How supportive is your family of your study?
6. How did you feel when you got accepted into university?
7. Did you always consider being a teacher?
246 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
UNIVERSITY EXPERIENCES
How was Orientation for you?
1. What programs have you been involved during Semester One?
Prompts
a. Mentoring programs?
b. Academic Skills workshops?
2. Have you formed groups and friendships with other students?
Prompts
a. What sort of people are you drawn to?
b. Is forming friendships a priority for you?
3. Have you developed relationships with your lecturers?
4. Do you attend classes?
5. Do you engage in classes?
a. How?
6. What approaches best support your learning?
ACHIEVING RESULTS
1. What are the results you strive to achieve?
2. What pushes you to achieve good results?
3. How important is succeeding at university to you?
4. What’s your motivation?
5. How do you perceive your commitment to university studies?
6. What do you find the most difficult to juggle?
7. Have you used Academic Skills or the library to assist you with your studies?
8. What other strategies do you use to assist yourself with assessment?
Prompts
a. Notetaking?
b. Highlighting content?
c. Researching journal websites?
d. Study groups?
CLOSING STATEMENT
Thank you for participating. If there is nothing more to say, then that draws us to the
conclusion.
Appendices 247
Appendix H
Semi-Structured In-Depth Individual Interview Protocol (Non-Academic Staff Member
from Office of Student Success)
Before turning the tape recorder on:
1. Explain the purpose of the interview.
Thank you for taking the time to meet with me today. I am interested in understanding how
first-year students experience university. I am going to be asking you questions about your
experiences when first-year students come to see you at the Office of Student Success,
Academic Skills.
2. Consent Process: Ask participant if s/he has not already completed consent forms.
Participants sign a copy of the consent form for them to keep and for the Interviewer to
keep (2 copies in total). In all cases, tell the participant:
Before we begin the interview, I want to remind you that participating in this study is
voluntary and your responses are completely confidential. At any point during the interview,
if any of you would like me to turn off the recorder, just tell me to do so. Do you have any
questions about the study before we begin?
Turn the recorder on
It is XX date at XX time. This is Katie O’Brien and I am interviewing one non-academic staff
member from the Office of Student Success.
I am going to ask a few introductory questions to begin the interview and then move to more
targeted questions about your experiences when first-year students come to see you at the
Office of Student Success.
ACADEMIC SKILLS
1. What does the university do to assist first-year students?
a. Orientation Day?
b. Other programs?
2. I know that Academic Skills offer workshops. What are they?
Prompts
a. Academic Skills workshops?
b. Attend tutorials in some classes?
248 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
c. Writing workshops?
d. APA referencing workshops?
e. Drop-in sessions?
f. Exam preparation?
g. Assignment writing?
3. How often do the workshops run and how long?
4. How do academic staff respond to the students’ requests for individual assistance?
CHALLENGES FIRST-YEAR STUDENTS FACE
1. What are some of the major challenges first-year students come to you with?
2. At what point in the semester do students start to visit Academic Skills?
3. What sort of students come for assistance?
Prompts
a. Non-recent school leavers?
b. School leavers?
c. Student with high OPs or low ATARs?
d. International students?
e. Indigenous students?
f. High achieving students?
4. When students receive feedback from their lecturer regarding “please see Academic
Skills”, do students come to you and identify this lecturer recommendation?
STUDENT /STAFF RELATIONSHIPS
I’m now going to ask a question about what staff might do to assist students.
1. What do you see that lecturers or other staff members do to also assist the first-year
students coming in?
CLOSING STATEMENT
Thank you for participating. If there is nothing more to say, then that draws us to the
conclusion.
Appendices 249
Appendix I
Semi-Structured In-Depth Individual Interview Protocol (Non-Academic Staff Members
from Orientation Committee)
Before turning the tape recorder on:
1. Explain the purpose of the interview.
Thank you for taking the time to meet with me today. I am interested in understanding how
first-year students experience university. I am going to be asking you some questions about
Orientation Day.
2. Consent Process: Ask participant if s/he has not already completed consent forms.
Participants sign a copy of the consent form for them to keep and for the Interviewer to
keep (2 copies in total). In all cases, tell the participant:
Before we begin the interview, I want to remind you that participating in this study is
voluntary and your responses are completely confidential. At any point during the interview,
if any of you would like me to turn off the recorder, just tell me to do so. Do you have any
questions about the study before we begin?
Turn the recorder on
It is XX date at XX time. This is Katie O’Brien and I am interviewing one individual non-
academic staff member from the Orientation Day Committee.
ORIENTATION DAY
I’m just going to ask you some general questions regarding Orientation Day.
1. Please describe what Orientation Day is about and how does it work?
2. Who else is involved?
Prompts
a. Internal people from other faculties and marketing?
b. Who are the external members of the community?
3. Is there a program?
Prompts
a. What does the program involve?
b. Are there any online, lead-in programs?
4. What does ACU wish to achieve?
250 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
5. Is there much feedback from the students regarding Orientation Day?
6. What does the university do with the feedback?
7. Are the students actually getting what is advertised?
8. What are the students’ expectations of Orientation Day?
9. Does Orientation Day provide a window to connect with other programs on campus?
Prompts
a. Sports programs?
b. Clubs and associations?
10. How are the students connected after Orientation Day?
11. How does Orientation Day assist with transition into university?
12. Does the university capture the engagement of first-year students?
CLOSING STATEMENT
Thank you for participating. If there is nothing more to say, then that draws us to the
conclusion.
Appendices 251
Appendix J
Human Research Ethics Committee Approval Letter and Original Email
Dear Applicant,
Principal Investigator: A/Prof Denis McLaughlin
Student Researcher: Ms Katie O’Brien
Ethics Register Number: 2013 157Q
Project Title: STUDENT EXPERIENCES IN THEIR FIRST YEAR AT AN AUSTRALIAN
UNIVERSITY: A CASE STUDY.
Risk Level: Low Risk 2
Date Approved: 17/10/2013
Ethics Clearance End Date: 31/12/2014
This email is to advise that your application has been reviewed by the Australian Catholic
University's Human Research Ethics Committee and confirmed as meeting the requirements
of the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research. This project has been
awarded ethical clearance until 31/12/2014. In order to comply with the National Statement
on Ethical Conduct in Human Research, progress reports are to be submitted on an annual
basis. If an extension of time is required researchers must submit a progress report.
Whilst the data collection of your project has received ethical clearance, the decision and
authority to commence may be dependent on factors beyond the remit of the ethics review
process. For example, your research may need ethics clearance or permissions from other
organisations to access staff. Therefore, the proposed data collection should not commence
until you have satisfied these requirements. If you require a formal approval certificate, please
respond via reply email and one will be issued. Decisions related to low risk ethical review
are subject to ratification at the next available Committee meeting. You will only be contacted
again in relation to this matter if the Committee raises any additional questions or concerns.
Researchers who fail to submit an appropriate progress report may have their ethical clearance
revoked and/or the ethical clearances of other projects suspended. When your project has been
completed please complete and submit a progress/final report form and advise us by email at
your earliest convenience. The information researchers provide on the security of records,
compliance with approval consent procedures and documentation and responses to special
conditions is reported to the NHMRC on an annual basis. In accordance with NHMRC the
ACU HREC may undertake annual audits of any projects considered to be of more than low
risk.
It is the Principal Investigators / Supervisors responsibility to ensure that:
1. All serious and unexpected adverse events should be reported to the HREC with 72
hours.
2. Any changes to the protocol must be approved by the HREC by submitting a
Modification Form prior to the research commencing or continuing.
3. All research participants are to be provided with a Participant Information Letter and
consent form, unless otherwise agreed by the Committee.
For progress and/or final reports, please complete and submit a Progress / Final Report form:
www.acu.edu.au/465013. For modifications to your project, please complete and submit a
Modification form: www.acu.edu.au/465013. Researchers must immediately report to HREC
252 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
any matter that might affect the ethical acceptability of the protocol eg: changes to protocols
or unforeseen circumstances or adverse effects on participants.
Please do not hesitate to contact the office if you have any queries.
Kind regards,
Kylie Pashley
Ethics Officer | Research Services
Office of the Deputy Vice Chancellor (Research) Australian Catholic University
THIS IS AN AUTOMATICALLY GENERATED RESEARCHMASTER EMAIL
Original email
Appendices 253
Appendix K
Information Letter to Students
PARTICIPANT INFORMATION LETTER
PROJECT TITLE: Student experiences in their first year at an Australian university: A case
study.
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Associate Professor Denis McLaughlin
STUDENT RESEARCHER: Katie O’Brien
STUDENT’S DEGREE: Doctor of Education
Dear Participant,
You are invited to participate in the research project described below.
What is the project about?
The research offers you an opportunity to share your opinions about your first-year experience
at university. The research is important as it may contribute to further research in this area and
it may contribute to better understanding how students engage with their first year of
university study.
Who is undertaking the project?
This project is being conducted by Katie O’Brien and will form the basis for the degree of
Doctor of Education at Australian Catholic University under the supervision of Associate
Professor Denis McLaughlin.
Are there any risks associated with participating in this project?
There are no foreseeable risks associated with this research. However, if you feel that you do
not wish to participate, then there is no obligation and no consequences.
What will I be asked to do?
You will be invited to volunteer to participate in this research. If you participate you will be
required to:
• Participate in a 30-minute audio taped focus group and/or
• Participate in a 30-minute audio taped individual interview.
The types of questions asked will relate to how you approach university study and your
university experiences. You will be invited to volunteer to participate in the focus groups and
interviews at the end of Semester One, with the expectation that both will be conducted before
Semester Two begins. The focus groups and interviews will take place in the office of Katie
O’Brien (GC.10) and will be determined later by appointment at a mutually convenient time
and date. A request will be sent at the end of Semester One via your student email address,
together with two Consent Forms (one for you to sign and keep, and one for you to sign and
return to me). Please see attached Consent Form.
What are the benefits of the research project?
The benefits to the participants will be that they share in hearing the experiences of other first-
year students at an Australian university.
Can I withdraw from the study?
Participation in this study is completely voluntary. You are not under any obligation to
participate. If you agree to participate, you can withdraw from the study at any time without
254 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
adverse consequences. Non-participation or withdrawal will not affect your ongoing enrolment
or results.
Will anyone else know the results of the project?
The study or parts thereof may be published in Australian or International Educational
Journals and final thesis. Participants will not be identified in any publications. Responses are
reported in coded form and confidentiality will be maintained.
Will I be able to find out the results of the project?
The final thesis will be made available for those students who participated. It will be the
decision of the participants to follow up this process.
Who do I contact if I have questions about the project?
Questions regarding this research should be directed to me at katie.o’[email protected];
(0410109307) or my Principal Supervisor, Associate Professor Denis McLaughlin (07 3623
7154); [email protected]; or:
Faculty of Education
Australian Catholic University
PO Box 456
Banyo Queensland 4014
What if I have a complaint or any concerns?
The study has been approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee at Australian Catholic
University (approval number 2013 157Q). If you have any complaints or concerns about the
conduct of the project, you may write to the Chair of the Human Research Ethics Committee
care of the Office of the Deputy Vice Chancellor (Research).
Chair, HREC
c/o Office of the Deputy Vice Chancellor (Research)
Australian Catholic University
Melbourne Campus
Locked Bag 4115
FITZROY, VIC, 3065
Ph: 03 9953 3150
Fax: 03 9953 3315
Email: [email protected]
Any complaint or concern will be treated in confidence and fully investigated. You will be
informed of the outcome.
I want to participate! How do I sign up?
If you wish to participate, please sign and return the consent form as soon as possible to
katie.o’[email protected]. I will then contact you to arrange a mutually convenient time and
date. Your participation or non-participation in this research does not disadvantage you with
your continued study. Your identity in all aspects of this research remains strictly confidential.
Yours sincerely,
Katie O’Brien
Denis McLaughlin
Appendices 255
Appendix L
Information Letter to Staff
PARTICIPANT INFORMATION LETTER
PROJECT TITLE: Student experiences in their first year at an Australian university: A case
study.
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Associate Professor Denis McLaughlin
STUDENT RESEARCHER: Katie O’Brien
STUDENT’S DEGREE: Doctor of Education
Dear Participant,
You are invited to participate in the research project described below.
What is the project about?
The research offers you an opportunity to share your opinions about first-year student
experiences at university. The research is important as it may contribute to further research in
this area and it may contribute to better understanding how students engage with their first
year of university study.
Who is undertaking the project?
This project is being conducted by Katie O’Brien and will form the basis for the degree of
Doctor of Education at Australian Catholic University under the supervision of Associate
Professor Denis McLaughlin.
Are there any risks associated with participating in this project?
There are no foreseeable risks associated with this research. However, if you feel that you do
not wish to participate, then there is no obligation and no consequences.
What will I be asked to do?
You will be invited to volunteer via email to participate in this research. If you participate you
will be required to:
• Participate in a 30-minute audio taped individual interview.
The types of questions asked will relate to how students you teach approach university study
and their university experiences. You will be invited to volunteer to participate in the interviews
at the end of Semester One, with the expectation that they will be conducted during Semester
Two. The interviews will take place in the office of Katie O’Brien (GC.10) and will be
determined later by appointment at a mutually convenient time and date. A request will be sent
at the end of Semester One via your staff email address, together with two Consent Forms (one
for you to sign and keep, and one for you to sign and return to me). Please see attached Consent
Form.
What are the benefits of the research project?
Staff will have the opportunity to share their experiences at an Australian university.
Can I withdraw from the study?
Participation in this study is completely voluntary. You are not under any obligation to
participate. If you agree to participate, you can withdraw from the study at any time without
adverse consequences. Non-participation or withdrawal will not affect our ongoing working
relationship.
256 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
Will anyone else know the results of the project?
The study or parts thereof may be published in Australian or International Educational
Journals and final thesis. Participants will not be identified in any publications. Responses are
reported in coded form and participants are non-identifiable for confidentiality.
Will I be able to find out the results of the project?
The final thesis will be made available for those students who participated. It will be the
decision of the participants to follow up this process.
Who do I contact if I have questions about the project?
Questions regarding this research should be directed to me at katie.o’[email protected];
(0410109307) or my Principal Supervisor, Associate Professor Denis McLaughlin (07 3623
7154); [email protected]; or:
Faculty of Education
Australian Catholic University
PO Box 456
Banyo Queensland 4014
What if I have a complaint or any concerns?
The study has been approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee at Australian Catholic
University (approval number 2013 157Q). If you have any complaints or concerns about the
conduct of the project, you may write to the Chair of the Human Research Ethics Committee
care of the Office of the Deputy Vice Chancellor (Research).
Chair, HREC
c/o Office of the Deputy Vice Chancellor (Research)
Australian Catholic University
Melbourne Campus
Locked Bag 4115
FITZROY, VIC, 3065
Ph: 03 9953 3150
Fax: 03 9953 3315
Email: [email protected]
Any complaint or concern will be treated in confidence and fully investigated. You will be
informed of the outcome.
I want to participate! How do I sign up?
If you wish to participate, please sign and return the consent form as soon as possible to
katie.o’[email protected]. I will then contact you to arrange a mutually convenient time and
date. Your identity in all aspects of this research remain strictly anonymous and confidential.
Yours sincerely,
Katie O’Brien
Denis McLaughlin
Appendices 257
Appendix M
Consent Form (Staff)
Copy for Participant (Staff) to Keep
TITLE OF PROJECT: STUDENT EXPERIENCES IN THEIR FIRST YEAR AT AN
AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITY: A CASE STUDY.
PRINCIPAL SUPERVISOR: Associate Professor Denis McLaughlin
STUDENT RESEARCHER (if applicable): Katie O’Brien
I ................................................... (the participant) have read (or, where appropriate, have had
read to me) and understood the information provided in the Letter to Participants. Any questions
I have asked have been answered to my satisfaction.
I agree/disagree to participate in:
• Semi structured in depth individual
interview
Both will be audio taped and I realise that I can withdraw my consent at any time (without
adverse consequences). I agree that research data collected for the study may be published or
may be provided to other researchers in a form that does not identify me in any way.
NAME OF PARTICIPANT: .....................................................................................................
My contact details are:
Mobile:
Staff email address:
SIGNATURE ..................................................................... DATE .................................
SIGNATURE OF PRINCIPAL SUPERVISOR: .........................................................................
DATE:………………………..
SIGNATURE OF STUDENT RESEARCHER: ..........................................................................
DATE:………………………..
258 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
Appendix N
Spectrum of Engagement Self-Assessment Tool (SOESAT)
Thank you for participating in the Spectrum of Engagement Self-Assessment Tool (SOESAT).
This questionnaire has a 5-point scale, 5 being the highest where you Strongly Agree with the
statement to 1 being the lowest where you will Strongly Disagree with the statement. There are
three dimensions of engagement within the SOESAT. These are Personal, Social and Academic
and are related to your experiences in your first semester.
During your first year, it is my goal as a Lecturer of the Bachelor of Education (Primary)
students, and as the First-Year Experience Coordinator and the Mentor Program Coordinator to
offer you as much support as possible. Before you complete the questionnaire, please provide
the demographic details as well. I appreciate your time in completing the details below.
Your name:
Your age:
What was your ATAR?
What was your OP?
Are you the first in your family to attend university?
Are there any other teachers in your family? Who?
Do you present as a non-recent school leaver?
Do you present as a recent school leaver?
What is your highest qualification received? (For example: Certificate 2, Certificate 3)
Have you attended TAFE, university or other pathways to assist with entry into university?
Have you applied for Adjustment factors through the university? If yes, how many did you
receive?
Have you registered for disabilities support?
Appendices 259
Spectrum of Engagement Self-Assessment Tool
Personal dimensions of engagement: Reflective of who you are as a student
Please consider and respond to the
following statements on your personal
engagement at university
Strongly
Agree
5
Agree
4
Neither
3
Disagree
2
Strongly
Disagree
1
I attended Orientation Day
I am involved with the peer mentor
program and became a mentee
I am motivated by my learning groups
I am motivated to study with peers
I have developed a student identity
through interaction with others
I feel validated by staff in class through
my interactions
I feel validated by students in class
through my interactions with them
Social dimensions of engagement: Enhancing social experiences
Please consider and respond to the
following statements on your personal
engagement at university
Strongly
Agree
5
Agree
4
Neither
3
Disagree
2
Strongly
Disagree
1
I have formed study groups to support
my learning
I have formed friendship groups to
support my learning
I am involved with sport clubs
I am involved with social clubs
I am involved with the student
association
260 Student experiences of first-year university: An Australian case study
Academic dimensions of engagement: Enhancing academic experiences
Please consider and respond to the
following statements on your personal
engagement at university
Strongly
Agree
5
Agree
4
Neither
3
Disagree
2
Strongly
Disagree
1
I am establishing a study–life balance
It is necessary to seek advice from the
Office of Student Success (Academic
Skills) staff
Developing study habits/strategies, e.g.
time management, is important to me
Even though I may have entered university
with a low entry score, I believe that I
should seek advice from Academic Skills
I believe there is a stigma associated with
seeking advice from Academic Skills
Engaging lectures and positive strategies
assist with my learning
Positive learning strategies provided by
my lecturer support my learning
I believe that written feedback assists with
my learning
I believe that verbal feedback assists with
my learning
Group work is beneficial
Appendices 261
Summary of Self-Assessment Levels of Engagement
Please add each score to quantify where your engagement levels fall.
Personal score: 35–25 High engagement 24–17 Middle engagement 16–0 Low engagement
Social score: 25–19 High engagement 18–11 Middle engagement 10–0 Low engagement
Academic score: 50–41 High engagement 40–25 Middle engagement 24–0 Low engagement
Personal
Score out of 35
Social
Score out of 25
Academic
Score out of 50
What engagement conclusions have I reached?
What engagement priorities need to be actioned?
Thank you for participating in the SOESAT.
