A Financial System
That Creates Economic Opportunities
Nonbank Financials, Fintech,
and Innovation
A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities Nonbank Financials, Fintech, and Innovation
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY
JULY 2018
TREASURY
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2018-04417 (Rev. 1) • Department of the Treasury • Departmental Ofces • www.treasury.gov
A Financial System
That Creates Economic Opportunities
Nonbank Financials, Fintech,
and Innovation
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY
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Report to President Donald J. Trump
Executive Order 13772 on Core Principles
for Regulating the United States Financial System
Steven T. Mnuchin
Secretary
Craig S. Phillips
Counselor to the Secretary
A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Nonbank Financials, Fintech, and Innovation
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Staff Acknowledgments
Secretary Mnuchin and Counselor Phillips would like to thank Treasury staff members for
their contributions to this report. The staff’s work on the report was led by Jessica Renier
and W. Moses Kim, and included contributions from Chloe Cabot, Dan Dorman, Alexan-
dra Friedman, Eric Froman, Dan Greenland, Gerry Hughes, Alexander Jackson, Danielle
Johnson-Kutch, Ben Lachmann, Natalia Li, Daniel McCarty, John McGrail, Amyn Moolji,
Brian Morgenstern, Daren Small-Moyers, Mark Nelson, Peter Nickoloff, Bimal Patel,
Brian Peretti, Scott Rembrandt, Ed Roback, Ranya Rotolo, Jared Sawyer, Steven Seitz,
Brian Smith, Mark Uyeda, Anne Wallwork, and Christopher Weaver.
A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Nonbank Financials, Fintech, and Innovation
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Table of Contents
Executive Summary 1
Nonbank Financials, Fintech, and Innovation 4
Emerging Trends in Financial Intermediation 6
Summary of Issues and Recommendations 9
Embracing Digitization, Data, and Technology 15
Digitization 17
Consumer Financial Data 22
e Potential of Scale 44
Aligning the Regulatory Framework to Promote Innovation 61
Challenges with State and Federal Regulatory Frameworks 63
Modernizing Regulatory Frameworks for National Activities 66
Updating Activity-Specic Regulations 81
Lending and Servicing 83
Payments 144
Wealth Management and Digital Financial Planning 159
Enabling the Policy Environment 165
Agile and Effective Regulation for a 21st Century Economy 167
International Approaches and Considerations 177
Appendices
Appendix A: Participants in the Executive Order Engagement Process 187
Appendix B: Table of Recommendations 195
Appendix C: Additional Background 213
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Acronyms and Abbreviations
Acronym/Abbreviation Term
ABA American Bankers Association
ACH Automated Clearing House
AI Articial Intelligence
AMC Appraisal Management Company
AML Anti-Money Laundering
API Application Programming Interface
APR Annual Percentage Rate
AQB Appraiser Qualications Board
ASB Appraisal Standards Board
ATM Automated Teller Machine
AVM Automated Valuation Model
BHC Bank Holding Company
BHC Act Bank Holding Company Act
BSA Bank Secrecy Act
Bureau Bureau of Consumer Financial Protection
CEG Cybersecurity Expert Group
C.F.R. Code of Federal Regulations
CFT Countering the Financing of Terrorism
CFTC U.S. Commodity Futures Trading Commission
CHAPS Clearing House Automated Payment System
CHIPS Clearing House Interbank Payments System
CMA Competition and Markets Authority (U.K.)
CRA Community Reinvestment Act
CROA Credit Repair Organizations Act
CSBS Conference of State Bank Supervisors
Cyber Apex Next Generation Cyber Infrastructure Apex Program
DARPA Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
DHS U.S. Department of Homeland Security
DIUx Defense Innovation Unit Experimental
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DLT Distributed Ledger Technology
DOD U.S. Department of Defense
Dodd-Frank Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act
DOJ U.S. Department of Justice
DOL U.S. Department of Labor
Education U.S. Department of Education
EMV Europay, Mastercard, and Visa
ESIGN Electronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce Act
E.U. European Union
FATF Financial Action Task Force
FBIIC Financial and Banking Information Infrastructure Committee
FCA False Claims Act
FCA U.K. Financial Conduct Authority
FCC Federal Communications Commission
FCRA Fair Credit Reporting Act
FDCPA Fair Debt Collection Practices Act
FDIC Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation
FedACH Federal Reserve Banks’ Automated Clearing House
FFIEC Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council
FHA Federal Housing Administration
FHA-HAMP FHA Home Aordable Modication Program
FHFA Federal Housing Finance Agency
FHLB Federal Home Loan Bank
FICO Fair Isaac Corporation
FIL Financial Institutions Letter
FinCEN Financial Crimes Enforcement Network
FINRA Financial Industry Regulatory Authority
Fintech Financial Technology
FIRREA Financial Institutions Reform, Recovery, and Enforcement Act
FlexMod GSE Flex Modication
FPS Faster Payments Service (U.K.)
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FRB Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System
FRBNY Federal Reserve Bank of New York
FSB Financial Stability Board
FS-ISAC Financial Services Information Sharing and Analysis Center
FTC Federal Trade Commission
G-7 Group of 7
G20 Group of 20
GAO U.S. Government Accountability Oce
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GDPR General Data Protection Regulation (E.U.)
GLBA Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act
GRC Governance, Risk and Compliance
GSE Government-Sponsored Enterprise
HUD U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development
IaaS Infrastructure as a Service
IRS Internal Revenue Service
ISO International Organization for Standardization
IT Information Technology
LOA Levels of Assurance
MAS Monetary Authority of Singapore
MBA Mortgage Bankers Association
MBS Mortgage-Backed Securities
MCSBA Maryland Credit Services Business Act
MERS Mortgage Electronic Registration System
MMIF Mutual Mortgage Insurance Fund
MPL Marketplace Lender
MSB Money Services Business
MTRA Money Transmitter Regulators Association
NACHA National Automated Clearinghouse Association
NAIC National Association of Insurance Commissioners
NBA National Bank Act
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NCUA National Credit Union Administration
NFC Near Field Communication
NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology
NMLS Nationwide Mortgage Licensing System or Nationwide Multistate
Licensing System
NSF National Science Foundation
NSS National Settlement Service
OBIE Open Banking Implementation Entity (U.K.)
OCC Oce of the Comptroller of the Currency
OFX Open Financial Exchange
P2P Person-to-Person or Peer-to-Peer
PaaS Platform as a Service
PCI-DSS Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard
PII Personally Identiable Information
PIN Personal Identication Number
PLS Private-Label Securities
PSD2 Revised Payment Services Directive (E.U.)
PSP Payment Service Provider
RTP Real Time Payments
SaaS Software as a Service
SAFE Act Secure and Fair Enforcement for Mortgage Licensing Act
SEC U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission
SIFMA Securities Industry and Financial Markets Association
SRO Self-Regulatory Organization
SWIFT Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication
SWIFT GPI Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication Global
Payments Innovation
TCH e Clearing House
TCPA Telephone Consumer Protection Act
TFFT Basel Committee on Banking Supervision’s Task Force on Financial
Technology
Treasury U.S. Department of the Treasury
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U.K. United Kingdom
U.S. United States
UDAAP Unfair, Deceptive, or Abusive Acts or Practices
UDAP Unfair or Deceptive Acts or Practices
UETA Uniform Electronic Transactions Act
URPERA Uniform Real Property Electronic Recording Act
U.S.C. United States Code
USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture
USPAP Uniform Standards of Professional Appraisal Practice
VA U.S. Department of Veterans Aairs
ZB Zettabyte
Executive Summary
A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Nonbank Financials, Fintech, and Innovation
Executive Summary • Introduction
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Introduction
President Donald J. Trump established the policy of his Administration to regulate the U.S. nan-
cial system in a manner consistent with a set of Core Principles. ese principles were set forth in
Executive Order 13772 on February 3, 2017. e U.S. Department of the Treasury (Treasury),
under the direction of Secretary Steven T. Mnuchin, prepared this report in response to that
Executive Order. e reports issued pursuant to the Executive Order identify laws, treaties, regula-
tions, guidance, reporting, and record keeping requirements, and other Government policies that
promote or inhibit federal regulation of the U.S. nancial system in a manner consistent with the
Core Principles.
e Core Principles are:
A. Empower Americans to make independent nancial decisions and informed choices in the
marketplace, save for retirement, and build individual wealth;
B. Prevent taxpayer-funded bailouts;
C. Foster economic growth and vibrant nancial markets through more rigorous regulatory
impact analysis that addresses systemic risk and market failures, such as moral hazard and
information asymmetry;
D. Enable American companies to be competitive with foreign rms in domestic and foreign
markets;
E. Advance American interests in international nancial regulatory negotiations and meetings;
F. Make regulation ecient, eective, and appropriately tailored; and
G. Restore public accountability within federal nancial regulatory agencies and rationalize the
federal nancial regulatory framework.
Scope of This Report
e nancial system encompasses a wide variety of institutions and services, and accordingly,
Treasury has delivered a series of four reports related to the Executive Order covering:
• e depository system, covering banks, savings associations, and credit unions of all sizes,
types, and regulatory charters (the Banking Report,
1
which was publicly released on June
12, 2017);
• Capital markets: debt, equity, commodities and derivatives markets, central clearing, and
other operational functions (the Capital Markets Report,
2
which was publicly released on
October 6, 2017);
1. U.S. Department of the Treasury, A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities: Banks and Credit
Unions (June 2017).
2. U.S. Department of the Treasury, A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities: Capital Markets
(Oct. 2017).
A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Nonbank Financials, Fintech, and Innovation
Executive Summary • Review of the Process for This Report
4
• e asset management and insurance industries, and retail and institutional investment
products and vehicles (the Asset Management and Insurance Report,
3
which was publicly
released on October 26, 2017); and
• Nonbank nancial institutions, nancial technology, and nancial innovation (this report).
Review of the Process for This Report
For this report, Treasury incorporated insights from the engagement process for the previous three
reports issued under the Executive Order and also engaged with additional stakeholders focused on
data aggregation, nonbank credit lending and servicing, payments networks, nancial technology,
and innovation. Over the course of this outreach, Treasury consulted extensively with a wide range
of stakeholders, including trade groups, nancial services rms, federal and state regulators, con-
sumer and other advocacy groups, academics, experts, investors, investment strategists, and others
with relevant knowledge. Treasury also reviewed a wide range of data, research, and published
material from both public and private sector sources.
Treasury incorporated the widest possible range of perspectives in evaluating approaches to regula-
tion of the U.S. nancial system according to the Core Principles. A list of organizations and
individuals who provided input to Treasury in connection with the preparation of this report is set
forth as Appendix A.
Nonbank Financials, Fintech, and Innovation
Nonbank nancial rms play important roles in providing nancial services to U.S. consumers
and businesses by providing credit to the economy across a wide range of retail and commercial
asset classes. Nonbanks are well integrated into the U.S. payments system and play key roles such
as facilitating back-end check processing; enabling card issuance, processing, and network activi-
ties; and providing customer-facing digital payments software. Nonbank nancial rms also play
important roles in capital markets and in providing nancial advice and execution services to retail
investors, among a range of other services.
e nancial crisis altered the environment in which banks and nonbanks compete to pro-
vide nancial services. Specically, many traditional nancial companies such as banks, credit
unions, and insurance companies experienced signicant distress during the crisis. is distress
caused the insolvency or restructuring of many existing nancial companies, particularly those
with volatile funding sources and concentrated balance sheets. e government responded to
this distress, and the unprecedented magnitude of taxpayer support it triggered, by writing far-
reaching laws that mandated the adoption of hundreds of new regulations. In some cases, these
policy changes made certain product segments unprotable for banks, thereby driving activity
3. U.S. Department of the Treasury, A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities: Asset
Management and Insurance (Oct. 2017).
A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Nonbank Financials, Fintech, and Innovation
Executive Summary • Nonbank Financials, Fintech, and Innovation
5
outside of the banking sector and creating opportunities for emerging nonbank nancial rms
to address unmet market demands.
At the same time, and as part of a longer-term trend, the rapid development of nancial technolo-
gies has enabled nancial services rms to improve operational eciencies and lower regulatory
compliance costs that increased as a result of the expansion of regulations following the nancial
crisis. Since the nancial crisis, there has been a proliferation in technological capabilities and
processes at increasing levels of cost eectiveness and speed. e use of data, the speed of commu-
nication, the proliferation of mobile devices and applications, and the expansion of information
ow all have broken down barriers to entry for a wide range of startups and other technology-based
rms that are now competing or partnering with traditional providers in nearly every aspect of the
nancial services industry.
e landscape for nancial services has changed substantially. From 2010 to the third quarter of
2017, more than 3,330 new technology-based rms serving the nancial services industry have
been founded, 40% of which are focused on banking and capital markets.
4
In the aggregate, the
nancing of such rms has been growing rapidly, reaching $22 billion globally in 2017, a thirteen-
fold increase since 2010.
5
Signicantly, lending by such rms now makes up more than 36% of all
U.S. personal loans, up from less than 1% in 2010.
6
Additionally, some digital nancial services
reach up to some 80 million members,
7
while consumer data aggregators can serve more than 21
million customers.
8
Important trends have arisen as a consequence of these factors, including:
• e nonbank sector has responded opportunistically to the pullback in services and
increased regulatory challenges placed on traditional nancial institutions, including the
launch of numerous startup platforms;
• Many of these platforms have rapidly grown beyond the startup phase, employing
technology-enabled approaches to customer acquisition and process support for
their services;
• Innovative new platforms in the nonbank nancial sector are, in some cases, standalone
providers, while others have focused on providing support for or interconnectivity with
traditional nancial institutions through partnerships, joint ventures, or other means;
4. Deloitte, Fintech by the Numbers: Incumbents, Startups, Investors Adapt to Maturing Ecosystem (2017), at 3
and 7, available at: https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/us/Documents/financial-services/us-dcfs-
fintech-by-the-numbers-web.pdf.
5. Id.
6. Hannah Levitt, Personal Loans Surge to a Record High, Bloomberg (July 3, 2018), available at: https://www.
bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-07-03/personal-loans-surge-to-a-record-as-fintech-firms-lead-the-way
(analyzing data from TransUnion).
7. Credit Karma, Press Release – Credit Karma and Silver Lake Announce $500 Million Strategic Secondary
Investment (Mar. 28, 2018), available at: https://www.creditkarma.com/pressreleases.
8. Envestnet, 2017 Annual Report, at 8, available at: http://www.envestnet.com/report/2017/download/EN-2017-
AnnualReport-Final.pdf.
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Executive Summary • Emerging Trends in Financial Intermediation
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• Large technology companies with access to vast stores of consumer data have simultane-
ously entered the nancial services industry, primarily in payments and credit provision;
and
• e increasing scale of technology-enabled competitors and the corresponding threat of
disruption has raised the stakes for existing rms to innovate more rapidly and pursue
dynamic and adaptive strategies. As a result, mature rms have launched platforms aimed
at reclaiming market share through alternative delivery systems and at lower costs than
they were previously able to provide.
Consumers increasingly prefer fast, convenient, and ecient delivery of services. New technologies
allow rms with limited scale to access computing power on levels comparable to much larger
organizations. e relative ubiquity of online access in the United States, combined with these new
technologies, allows newer rms to more easily expand their business operations.
In this report, we explore the characteristics of, and regulatory landscape for, nonbank nancial
rms with traditional “brick and mortar” footprints not covered in the previous Core Principles
reports, as well as newer business models employed by technology-based rms. We also address
the ability of banks to innovate internally, as well as partner with such technology-based rms.
Foundational to the report’s ndings, we explore the implications of digitization and its impact on
access to clients and their data, focusing on several thematic areas, including:
• e collection, storage, and use of nancial data;
• Cloud services and “big data” analytics;
• Articial intelligence and machine learning; and
• Digital legal identity and data security.
is report includes a limited treatment of blockchain and distributed ledger technologies. ese
technologies, as well as digital assets, are being explored separately in an interagency eort led by
a working group of the Financial Stability Oversight Council. e working group is a convening
mechanism to promote coordination among regulators as these technologies evolve.
Emerging Trends in Financial Intermediation
Financial services are being signicantly reshaped by several important trends, including (1) rapid
advances in technology; (2) increased eciencies from the rapid digitization of the economy; and
(3) the abundance of capital available to propel innovation.
Technological Advances in Financial Services
In addition to other benets, innovations in nancial technology expand access to services for
underserved individuals or small businesses and improve the ease of use, speed, and cost of such
services. Businesses providing nancial services benet from opportunities to improve their prod-
uct oerings to win market share and reduce per-customer operational costs.
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Executive Summary • Emerging Trends in Financial Intermediation
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Expanded access to credit and nancial services. Digital advice platforms are making nancial plan-
ning tools and wealth management capabilities previously limited to higher net worth households
available to a much broader segment of households. New platforms for lending are developing
business models that take advantage of new types of data and credit analysis, potentially serving
consumer and small business borrower segments that may not otherwise have access to credit
through traditional underwriting approaches. Unbanked or underbanked populations can gain
improved access to banking services through new mobile device-based banking applications.
Expanded speed, convenience, and security. Consumer and business demand for increased
convenience and speed have driven the digitization of nancial services. For example, increased
digitization of the mortgage process has improved the online experience of nancing a home,
but additional innovations could dramatically help to further shorten the time it takes to close
a mortgage, which still took an average of 52 days in 2016.
9
Borrowers seeking to renance or
consolidate higher-rate student loans or other consumer debts can obtain accelerated credit deci-
sions from some lenders, as can small business entrepreneurs looking to expand their business or
manage their seasonality.
Payment systems also benet from innovations that are delivering greater speed and security. e
proliferation of mobile and person-to-person payments allows end-users a way to quickly transfer
money using identiers such as an e-mail address or phone number. Contactless payment methods
that store and tokenize payment information are also increasingly being used and could provide
a more convenient and secure way to pay. ese innovations are helping small businesses to lower
the barriers to receive payments.
Reduced cost of services and operational eciencies. Online marketplace lenders generally oer
unsecured consumer loans that are designed to renance existing higher-rate debts into lower-
rate debt, reducing borrowing costs for consumers. Digital nancial advice providers are able to
leverage technology to scale their services to larger numbers of investors and to provide such services
at more aordable prices than traditional providers. e increasing digitization of payments is
expected to reduce signicant costs in the current payment processes for businesses and rms by,
for example, replacing physical paper checks with electronic payments and reducing ineciencies
in cross-border payments.
Digitization of Finance and the Economy
Changes in the hardware industry, as reected in advances in core computing and data storage
capacity, represent a sea change in capabilities and expand the potential for nancial services to be
provided on a more cost-eective basis. When considered alongside the ubiquity of mobile devices
and the growth in the volume and facility of applications and exibility of mobile communication,
the implications for nancial services are signicant. e collection and storage of data and the
application of advanced computational techniques allow for a new generation of approaches in the
9. Andreas Fuster et al., The Role of Technology in Mortgage Lending, Federal Reserve Bank of New York Staff
Report No. 836 (Feb. 2018), at 12, available at: https://www.newyorkfed.org/medialibrary/media/research/
staff_reports/sr836.pdf.
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design, marketing, and delivery of nancial services. At the same time, these new approaches may
raise new concerns about data privacy and theft or misuse.
Consider the recent proliferation of digital data available for analysis. By 2020, digitized data is
forecasted to be generated at a level that is more than 40 times the level produced in 2009.
10
In
2012, it was estimated that 90% of the digitized data in the world had been generated in just
the prior two years.
11
Since 2012, more than one billion more people have gained access to the
internet, with 2.5 billion people connected to the internet in 2012 and 3.7 billion people in
2017.
12
Globally, there are an estimated 27 billion devices connected to the internet, including
smartphones, tablets, and computers, with expectations for 125 billion connected devices by the
year 2030.
13
Parallel to these growing improvements in data and connectivity are expanding complementary
technologies, such as cloud computing and machine learning. ese technologies enable rms
to store vast amounts of data and eciently increase computing resources. Unsurprisingly, for
nancial services rms, data analytics and machine learning (or articial intelligence) are two
of the top three areas of tech investment.
14
Other technology developments that are poised to
impact innovation in nancial services include advances in cryptography and distributed ledger
technologies, giving rise to blockchain-based networks.
Investment Capital
e ow of capital into investments in nancial technology is very large. U.S. rms accounted for
nearly half of the $117 billion in cumulative global investments from 2010 to 2017.
15
Unfolding
alongside these investments, many large, well-established rms involved in data, software, cloud
computing, internet search, mobile devices, retail e-commerce, payments, and telecommunications
have begun to engage in activities directly or indirectly related to nancial services. Many of
these rms are based in the United States, including rms having some of the largest market
capitalizations in the world.
e availability of capital, the large size of the nancial services market, and continued advance-
ments in technology make accelerating innovation nearly inevitable. is includes investments
in innovation by traditional nancial institutions, such as banks, asset managers and insurers, to
10. A.T. Kearney, Big Data and the Creative Destruction of Today’s Business Models (2013), at 2, available at:
https://www.atkearney.com/documents/10192/698536/Big+Data+and+the+Creative+Destruction+of+Today
s+Business+Models.pdf/f05aed38-6c26-431d-8500-d75a2c384919 (discussing Oracle forecast).
11. Id.
12. Id.
13. IHS Markit, The Internet of Things: A Movement, Not a Market (Oct. 2017), at 2, available at: https://cdn.ihs.
com/www/pdf/IoT_ebook.pdf. For projections that do not consider computers and phones, see Gartner, Inc.,
Press Release – Gartner Says 8.4 Billion Connected “Things” Will be in Use in 2017, up 31 Percent from
2016 (Feb. 7, 2017), available at: https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3598917.
14.
PricewaterhouseCoopers, Redrawing the Lines: FinTech’s Growing Influence on Financial Services (2017), at
9, available at: https://www.pwc.com/gx/en/industries/financial-services/assets/
pwc-global-fintech-report-2017.pdf.
15. Treasury analysis of FT Partners data.
A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Nonbank Financials, Fintech, and Innovation
Executive Summary • Summary of Issues and Recommendations
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provide higher quality, more secure, and more ecient services while meeting consumer demand
for speed and convenience.
Summary of Issues and Recommendations
Treasury’s review of the regulatory framework for nonbank nancial institutions and innovation
more broadly has identied signicant opportunities to accelerate innovation in the United States
consistent with the Core Principles. is review has identied a wide range of measures that could
promote economic growth, while maintaining strong consumer and investor protections and safe-
guarding the nancial system.
Treasury believes that innovation is critical to the success of the U.S. economy, particularly in the
nancial sector. roughout Treasury’s ndings, opportunities have been identied to modernize
regulation to embrace the use of data, encourage the adoption of advanced data processing and
other techniques to improve business processes, and support the launch of alternative product and
service delivery systems. Support of innovation is critical across the regulatory system — both at
the federal and state levels. Treasury supports encouraging the launch of new business models as
well as enabling traditional nancial institutions, such as banks, asset managers, and insurance
companies, to pursue innovative technologies to lower costs, improve customer outcomes, and
improve access to credit and other services.
Treasury’s recommendations in this report can be summarized in the following four categories:
• Adapting regulatory approaches to changes in the aggregation, sharing, and use of con-
sumer nancial data, and to support the development of key competitive technologies;
• Aligning the regulatory framework to combat unnecessary regulatory fragmentation, and
account for new business models enabled by nancial technologies;
• Updating activity-specic regulations across a range of products and services oered by
nonbank nancial institutions, many of which have become outdated in light of techno-
logical advances; and
• Advocating an approach to regulation that enables responsible experimentation in the
nancial sector, improves regulatory agility, and advances American interests abroad.
A list of all of Treasury’s recommendations in this report is set forth as Appendix B, including the
recommended action, method of implementation (Congressional and/or regulatory action), and
which Core Principles are addressed.
Key themes of Treasury’s recommendations are as follows.
Embracing Digitization, Data, and Competitive Technologies
is report catalogues key elements in the evolution of digitization, data, and scalable technologies
and highlights areas of relevance to many aspects of nancial services, including lending, nancial
advice, and payments. Treasury recommends that key provisions of the Telephone Consumer
A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Nonbank Financials, Fintech, and Innovation
Executive Summary • Summary of Issues and Recommendations
10
Protection Act be updated, and believes closing the digital divide to enable the entire U.S. popula-
tion to benet from modern information and communication ow is a priority.
Treasury makes numerous recommendations that would improve consumers’ access to data and
its use by third parties that would support better delivery of services in a responsible manner.
Treasury has identied the need to remove legal and regulatory uncertainties currently holding
back nancial services companies and data aggregators from establishing data-sharing agreements
that would eectively move rms away from screen-scraping to more secure and ecient methods
of data access. e U.S. market would be well served by a solution developed in concert with
the private sector that addresses data sharing, standardization, security, and liability issues. It is
important to explore eorts to mitigate implementation costs for community banks and smaller
nancial services companies with more limited resources to invest in technology. Additionally,
Treasury recommends that Congress enact a federal data security and breach notication law to
protect consumer nancial data and ensure that consumers are notied of breaches in a timely and
consistent manner.
Removing regulatory barriers to foundational technologies, including the development of digital
legal identity, is important to improving nancial inclusion and enabling the use of scalable,
competitive technologies. Similarly, facilitating the further development and incorporation
of cloud technologies, machine learning, and articial intelligence into nancial services is
important to realizing the potential these technologies can provide for nancial services and the
broader economy.
Aligning the Regulatory Framework to Promote Innovation
Many statutes and regulations addressing the nancial sector date back decades. As a result, the
nancial regulatory framework is not always optimally suited to address new business models and
products that continue to evolve in nancial services. is has the potential negative consequence
of limiting innovation that might benet consumers and small businesses. Financial regulation
should be modernized to more appropriately address the evolving characteristics of nancial ser-
vices of today and in the future.
It is important that state regulators strive to achieve greater harmonization, including considering
drafting of model laws that could be uniformly adopted for nancial services companies cur-
rently challenged by varying licensing requirements of each state. Treasury encourages eorts to
streamline and coordinate examinations and to encourage, where possible, regulators to conduct
joint examinations of individual rms. Treasury supports Vision 2020, an eort by the Conference
of State Bank Supervisors that includes establishing a Fintech Industry Advisory Panel to help
improve state regulation, harmonizing multi-state supervisory processes, and redesigning the suc-
cessful Nationwide Multistate Licensing System.
At the federal level, Treasury encourages the Oce of the Comptroller of the Currency to further
develop its special purpose national bank charter, previously announced in December 2016. A
forward-looking approach to federal charters could be eective in reducing regulatory fragmenta-
tion and growing markets by supporting benecial business models.
A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Nonbank Financials, Fintech, and Innovation
Executive Summary • Summary of Issues and Recommendations
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Finally, Treasury encourages banking regulators to better tailor and clarify guidance regarding
bank partnerships with nonbank nancial rms, particularly smaller, less-mature companies with
innovative technologies that do not present a material risk to the bank. Treasury believes it is
important to encourage the partnership model to promote innovation. Further, Treasury makes
recommendations regarding changes to permissible activities, including bank activities related to
acquiring or investing in nonbank platforms.
Updating Activity-Specific Regulations
is report surveys a wide range of activities where specic recommendations for regulatory reform
are suggested. e range of nancial services includes:
Marketplace Lending
Marketplace lenders are expanding access to credit for consumers and businesses in the United
States. Treasury recognizes that partnerships between banks and marketplace lenders have been
valuable to enhance the capabilities of mature nancial rms. Treasury recommends eliminating
constraints brought about by recent court cases that would unnecessarily limit the functioning
of U.S. credit markets. Congress should codify the “valid when made” doctrine and the role of
the bank as the “true lender” of loans it makes. Federal banking regulators should also use their
available authorities to address both of these challenges.
Mortgage Lending and Servicing
Treasury recognizes that the primary residential mortgage market has experienced a fundamental
shift in composition since the nancial crisis, as traditional deposit-based lender-servicers have
ceded sizable market share to nonbank nancial rms, with the latter now accounting for approxi-
mately half of new originations. Some of this shift has been driven by the post-crisis regulatory
environment, including enforcement actions brought under the False Claims Act for violations
related to government loan insurance programs. Additionally, many nonbank lenders have ben-
etted from early adoption of nancial technology innovations that speed up and simplify loan
application and approval at the front-end of the mortgage origination process. Policymakers should
address regulatory challenges that discourage broad primary market participation and inhibit the
adoption of technological developments with the potential to improve the customer experience,
shorten origination timelines, facilitate ecient loss mitigation, and generally deliver a more reli-
able, lower cost mortgage product.
Student Lending and Servicing
e federal student loan program represents more than 90% of outstanding student loan volume
and is managed by an extensive network of nonbanks for servicing and debt collection. e pro-
gram is complex due to a variety of loan types, repayment plans, and product features that make
the program dicult for borrowers to navigate and increase the diculty and cost of servicing.
Treasury recommends that the U.S. Department of Education establish and publish minimum
eective servicing standards to provide servicers clear guidelines for servicing and help set expecta-
tions about how the servicing of federal loans is regulated. Treasury provides recommendations
related to the greater use of technology in communications with borrowers, enhanced portfolio
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Executive Summary • Summary of Issues and Recommendations
12
performance monitoring and management by Education, and greater institutional accountability
for schools participating in the federal nancial aid programs.
Short-Term, Small-Dollar Lending
While the demand for short-term, small-dollar loans is high, lenders have been constrained by
unnecessary regulatory guidance at the federal level. Treasury recommends that the Bureau of
Consumer Financial Protection (Bureau) rescind its Payday Rule, which applies to nonbank short-
term, small-dollar lenders, as the states already maintain the necessary regulatory authorities and
the rule would further restrict consumer access to credit. Treasury also recommends that both
federal and state banking regulators take steps to encourage prudent and sustainable short-term,
small-dollar installment lending by banks.
Debt Collection
Debt collectors and debt buyers play an important role in minimizing losses in consumer credit
markets, thereby allowing for increased availability of and lower priced credit to consumers. A
variety of stakeholders have expressed concerns about the adequacy of loan information provided
when a loan is sold or transferred for collection. When debt collectors and buyers do not receive
adequate information, they are unable to demonstrate to the consumer that the debt is valid and
owed. Treasury recommends the Bureau establish minimum eective federal standards for third-
party debt collectors, including standards for the information that must be transferred with the
debt for purposes of third-party collection or sale.
New Credit Models and Data
A growing number of rms have begun to use or explore a wide range of newer data sets or
advanced algorithms, including machine learning-based methods, to support credit underwriting
decisions. Treasury recognizes that these new credit models and data sources have the potential to
meaningfully expand access to credit and the quality of nancial services, and therefore recom-
mends that nancial regulators further enable their testing. In particular, regulators should provide
regulatory clarity for the use of new data and modeling approaches that are generally recognized as
providing predictive value consistent with applicable law for use in credit decisions.
Credit Bureaus
e consumer credit bureaus collect sensitive information on millions of Americans, and thus are
required to protect the information they collect. While the credit bureaus are subject to state and
federal regulation for consumer protection purposes, and have been subject to state and federal
enforcement actions related to data security, they are not routinely supervised for compliance with
the federal data security requirements of the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act. Treasury recommends that
the relevant agencies use appropriate authorities to coordinate regulatory actions to protect con-
sumer data held by credit reporting agencies and that Congress continue to assess whether further
authority is needed in this area. Treasury also recommends that Congress amend the Credit Repair
Organizations Act to exclude national credit bureaus and national credit scorers in order to allow
these entities to provide credit education and counseling services to consumers to prospectively
improve their credit scores.
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IRS Income Verication
e Internal Revenue Service (IRS) system that lenders and vendors use to obtain borrower tax
transcripts is outdated and should be modernized in order to minimize delays in accessing tax
information, which would facilitate the consumer and small business credit origination process.
In other data aggregation situations, such as gathering borrower bank balances, lenders generally
are able to obtain the needed borrower nancial information through an application program-
ming interface (API) to instantaneously and safely transfer data. e IRS’s current technology
should be updated to accommodate lender access of borrower information to instantaneously
and safely transfer data, comparable to similar private sector solutions. While the IRS is working
to update its technology more broadly, these eorts would benet from additional funding,
which would facilitate upgrades to support more ecient income verication, bringing a critical
component of the credit process up to speed with broader innovations in nancial technology.
Payments
Treasury recommends that the states work to harmonize money transmitter requirements for
licensing and supervisory examinations, and urges the Bureau to provide more exibility regarding
the issuance of remittance disclosures. Treasury encourages the Federal Reserve to move quickly
in facilitating a faster retail payments system, such as through the development of a real-time
settlement service that would allow for more ecient and widespread access to innovative payment
capabilities. Such a system should take into account the ability of smaller nancial institutions, such
as community banks and credit unions, to access innovative technologies and payment services.
Wealth Management and Digital Financial Planning
Digital nancial planning tools can expand access to advice for Americans to accumulate suf-
cient wealth, particularly as individuals have become more responsible for their own retirement
planning. Under the current regulatory structure, nancial planners may be regulated at both
the federal and state levels. Although many nancial planners are regulated by the Securities and
Exchange Commission or state securities regulators, they may also be subject to regulation by the
Department of Labor, the Bureau, federal or state banking regulators, state insurance commission-
ers, state boards of accountancy, and state bars. is patchwork of regulatory authority increases
costs and potentially presents unnecessary barriers to the development of digital nancial planning
services. Treasury recommends that an appropriate existing regulator of a nancial planner be
tasked with primary oversight of that nancial planner and other regulators defer to that regulator.
Regulating a 21st Century Economy
Treasury advocates an agile approach to regulation that can evolve with innovation. It is critical
not to allow fragmentation in the nancial regulatory system, at both the federal and state level,
to interfere with innovation. Financial regulators must consider new approaches to eectively
promote innovation, including permitting meaningful experimentation by nancial services rms
to create innovative products, services, and processes.
Internationally, many countries have established “innovation facilitators” and various regulatory
“sandboxes” — testing grounds for innovation. ese sandboxes have each generally supported
common principles, such as promoting the adoption and growth of innovation in nancial services,
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Executive Summary • Summary of Issues and Recommendations
14
providing access to companies in various stages of the business lifecycle, providing varying degrees
of regulatory relief while maintaining consumer protections, and improving the timeliness of regu-
lator feedback oered throughout the development lifecycle. While replicating this approach in
the United States is complicated by the fragmentation of our nancial regulatory system, Treasury
is committed to working with federal and state nancial regulators to establish a unied solution
that accomplishes these objectives — in essence, a regulatory sandbox.
e ability of regulators to engage with the private sector to test and understand new technolo-
gies and innovations as they arise is equally important. Treasury recommends that Congress pass
legislation authorizing nancial regulators to use other transaction authority for research and
development and proof of concept technology projects. Treasury encourages nancial regulators to
pursue robust engagement eorts with industry and establish clear points of contact for outreach
to enable the symbiotic relationship necessary to maintaining U.S. global competitiveness.
Treasury will work to ensure actions taken by international organizations align with U.S. national
interests and the domestic priorities of U.S. regulatory authorities. is should include a focus on
the needs of U.S. companies that operate on a global basis. Participation by the relevant experts
in international forums and standard-setting bodies is important to share experiences regarding
respective regulatory approaches and to benet from lessons learned.
A Bright Future for Innovation
e United States is the global leader in technological innovation. e pace of technological devel-
opment in nancial services has increased exponentially, oering potential benets to the U.S.
economy. Treasury encourages all nancial regulators to stay abreast of developments in technology
and to properly tailor regulations in a manner that does not constrain innovation. Regulators must
be more agile than in the past in order to fulll their statutory responsibilities without creating
unnecessary barriers to innovation. Ensuring a bright future for nancial innovation, regulators
should take meaningful steps to facilitate and enhance the nation’s strength in technology and
work toward the common goals of fostering vibrant nancial markets and promoting growth
through responsible innovation.
Embracing Digitization,
Data, and Technology
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Embracing Digitization, Data, and Technology • Overview
17
Overview
e cost of collecting, transmitting, and storing vast amounts of data has sharply declined over the
last 20 years, which has driven a technological revolution in many industries. Related technologies
built on top of this increased ability to collect and manage data, like machine learning and articial
intelligence, have enabled a wide range of practical applications, many of which are relevant to the
nancial services industry. e combination of digitization, data, and technology can promote
economic growth, increase consumer satisfaction, and improve choice, opportunity, and economic
inclusion for all Americans. ese factors also stimulate innovation, increase competition, and
enhance the global competitiveness of the United States.
Key upgrades to the regulatory system are needed to enable the nancial system to realize the ben-
ets of economy-wide advances in these new technologies, including updating rules for nancial
services in the digital economy, assuring the existence of secure and open access to nancial data,
and aligning requirements for core infrastructure and competitive technologies. In each instance,
there is a signicant role for both the public and private sector — in fact, collaboration between
the two is essential. Likewise, many regulations were adopted in and for a very dierent era, requir-
ing a focus on modernization and appropriate tailoring that is consistent with the Core Principles.
Digitization
e transformation of business into the digital era has had a profound impact on innovation
and economic growth. Converting information into digital form made it possible for data to
be electronically stored, transmitted, and analyzed. As the costs of storing and processing data
have decreased, the amounts of data collected and retained have correspondingly increased. When
combined with developments in communication and networking, the modern economy exists in
a digital environment that allows near-instantaneous access to signicant volumes of information.
Ensuring this data is used in a manner that safely creates new products and services with positive
eects on the economy and society is an important national objective.
e key driver of this digital business environment is the increasingly widespread use of digital
devices by Americans. Consider that nearly 90% of U.S. adults are online.
16
Moreover, 77% own a
mobile phone with advanced digital capabilities, 53% own a tablet, and 46% have used digital voice
assistants.
17
Most Americans use a combination of phone calls, text messages, and e-mails to manage
their business and personal relationships. As a result, Americans’ digital addresses (e.g., e-mail, device,
chat ID) have increasingly become the equivalent of what a physical mailing address or telephone
landline was in the past — the most eective way to reach a person for a business purpose.
16. Pew Research Center, Internet/Broadband Fact Sheet (Feb. 5, 2018), available at: http://www.pewinternet.org/
fact-sheet/internet-broadband/.
17.
Kenneth Olmstead, Pew Research Center, Nearly Half of Americans Use Digital Voice Assistants, Mostly on
their Smartphones (Dec. 12, 2017), available at: http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/12/12/nearly-
half-of-americans-use-digital-voice-assistants-mostly-on-their-smartphones/; Pew Research Center, Mobile
Fact Sheet (Feb. 5, 2018), available at: http://www.pewinternet.org/fact-sheet/mobile/.
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Embracing Digitization, Data, and Technology • Digitization
18
0
20
40
60
80
100
Social Media
Tablet
Broadband*
Internet
Smartphone
Figure 1: Technology Adoption and Usage
51%
38%
Mobile
banking**
33%
17%
2015
2017
Fintech
services***
Percent of U.S. adults who own
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016
* used at home.
** as a percentage of survey respondents that have a bank account.
*** as a percentage of survey respondents that are active online.
Source (left): Chart and data recreated from Pew Research Center analysis.
Sources (right): For mobile banking data, Federal Reserve analysis of Survey of Household Economics and
Decisionmaking and Survey of Consumers’ Use of Mobile Financial Services.
For fintech services growth, see Ernst and Young, EY FinTech Adoption Index 2017, at 13.
Financial institutions and technology-focused rms have recognized this shift in where consum-
ers “reside” and have consequently been transforming their business activities to meet customers’
demand for digital interaction where possible. Consumers are rapidly adopting services provided
by new ntech companies. Survey data indicate that up to one-third of online U.S. consumers
use at least two ntech services — including nancial planning, savings and investment, online
borrowing, or some form of money transfer and payment.
18
Banking is also increasingly digital. Today, 50% of people with bank accounts use mobile devices
to access their information, up from 20% in 2011,
19
while the number of physical bank branches
18. Ernst & Young Global Limited, EY FinTech Adoption Index 2017: The Rapid Emergency of FinTech (2017),
available at: https://www.ey.com/Publication/vwLUAssets/ey-fintech-adoption-index-2017/%24FILE/ey-fin-
tech-adoption-index-2017.pdf.
19.
Ellen A. Merry, Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Mobile Banking: A Closer Look at Survey
Measures, FEDS Notes (Mar. 27, 2018), available at: https://doi.org/10.17016/2380-7172.2163.
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19
has been declining since 2009.
20
U.S. banks of all sizes are enabling digital engagement with their
customers and are increasingly oering mobile phone applications that provide for a full suite of
banking services, among other eorts.
is digital transformation of the economy and nancial services requires wide-ranging changes
to the U.S. regulatory system. For example, there is a need to modernize regulations for digitally
communicating with consumers. Other regulations that should be implemented are discussed
throughout this report and include: updating regulations to better facilitate secure access to digi-
tized data, authentication of digital identity, and support for core nancial service activities such as
lending, payments, and investment advice.
Digital Communications
Telephone Consumer Protection Act
In 1991, Congress passed the Telephone Consumer Protection Act (TCPA) to restrict telemarket-
ing calls and the use of automatic telephone dialing systems (autodialers) and prerecorded voice
messages.
21
e Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is responsible for rules implement-
ing the TCPA. Among the restrictions, the TCPA forbids telemarketers from calling a cell phone
using an autodialer without rst obtaining prior express consent of the called party.
22
However,
current implementation of the TCPA constrains the ability of nancial services rms to use digital
communication channels to communicate with their customers despite consumers’ increasing reli-
ance on text messaging and e-mail communications through their mobile devices.
In 2015, the FCC issued an order responding to 21 requests for clarication or amendment to
the FCC’s TCPA rules and orders.
23
Financial services rms raised three primary concerns with
the FCC’s 2015 order. First, the denition of autodialer was overly broad because it included the
capacity to make an autodialed call, as opposed to the actual use of the equipment as an autodialer.
Second, by only providing a one-call safe harbor, which permitted a caller only a single call to
determine whether a phone number was reassigned, the FCC order exposed rms to signicant
liability — up to a $500-per-call penalty — for dialing reassigned numbers, even when one call
was insucient to permit the rm to learn that the number was reassigned. ird, the order per-
mitted consumers to revoke consent “using any reasonable method,” and prohibited callers from
“infring[ing] on that ability by designating an exclusive means to revoke.”
24
Regarding revocation,
rms asked for clear guidance detailing reasonable methods of revocation given the TCPA’s penal-
ties for noncompliance.
20. Julie Stackhouse, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, Why Are Banks Shuttering Branches?, On the
Economy Blog (Feb. 26, 2018), available at: https://www.stlouisfed.org/on-the-economy/2018/february/
why-banks-shuttering-branches.
21. Public Law No. 102-243 [codified at 47 U.S.C. § 227].
22. 47 U.S.C. § 227(b)(1)(A).
23. See Federal Communications Commission, In the Matter Rules and Regulations Implementing the Telephone
Consumer Protection Act of 1991 et al., Declaratory Rule and Order, CG Docket No. 02-278 (June 18, 2015),
available at: https://apps.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/FCC-15-72A1_Rcd.pdf (“FCC 2015 Order”).
24.
Id. at 7996.
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On March 16, 2018, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit ruled on these three issues in
a case brought against the FCC by ACA International, a trade group representing debt collectors.
25
First, the D.C. Circuit held that the FCC’s denition of autodialer was arbitrary and capricious
because, under the FCC’s denition, “all smartphones qualify as autodialers because they have
the inherent ‘capacity’ to gain [autodialer] functionality by downloading an app.”
26
Second, the
Court held that the one-call safe harbor was arbitrary and capricious because the FCC failed to
explain why a “caller’s reasonable reliance on a previous subscriber’s consent necessarily cease[s] to
be reasonable once there has been a single, post-reassignment call.”
27
ird, the Court upheld the
FCC’s use of a “reasonable means” standard for revocation of consent but left open the possibility
of dierent “revocation rules mutually adopted by contracting parties.”
28
After the D.C. Circuit’s decision, the FCC reconsidered how the TCPA applies to reassigned
numbers, issuing a proposed rule on preventing unwanted calls to reassigned numbers and seeking
comment on methods to establish a reassigned numbers database.
29
A reassigned numbers database
— long supported by market participants and consumer advocates — could reduce unwanted
calls to consumers and reduce caller liability by permitting callers to conduct due diligence to
learn whether a number has been recently reassigned and, if it has, remove that number from their
autodialed calls.
30
Fair Debt Collection Practices Act
Congress enacted the Fair Debt Collection Practices Act (FDCPA), in part, to “eliminate abu-
sive debt collection practices by debt collectors.”
31
e responsibility of enforcement is shared by
the Bureau of Consumer Financial Protection (the Bureau) and the Federal Trade Commission
(FTC).
32
However, current implementation of the FDCPA may inadvertently make interactions
between debt collectors and consumers needlessly cumbersome. e FDCPA prohibits debt col-
lectors from disclosing information about a consumer’s debt to unauthorized third parties and
allows consumers to terminate communication about the debt.
33
While using e-mail or voicemail
to communicate with a consumer about his or her debt is permissible under FDCPA, potential
litigation risk can arise if the debt collector inadvertently discloses information regarding the debt
to an unauthorized third party while using contact information provided by the borrower. As a
result, even if consumers increasingly prefer to communicate digitally, such as via text messages and
e-mail, litigation risk can discourage debt collectors from doing so.
25. ACA International v. FCC, 885 F.3d 687 (D.C. Cir. 2018).
26.
Id. at 700.
27. Id. at 707.
28. Id. at 709-10.
29. Advanced Methods to Target and Eliminate Unlawful Robocalls (Apr. 20, 2018) [83 Fed. Reg. 17631 (Apr. 23,
2018)].
30.
Id.
31. 15 U.S.C. § 1692(e).
32. Id. § 1692l; see also Bureau of Consumer Financial Protection, Fair Debt Collection Practices Act: Annual
Report 2018 (Mar. 2018), at 7, available at: https://s3.amazonaws.com/files.consumerfinance.gov/f/documents/
cfpb_fdcpa_annual-report-congress_03-2018.pdf.
33. 15 U.S.C. § 1692c(b).
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21
Recommendations
Treasury recognizes that the increasingly digitized nature of the economy and nancial system
requires revisiting of customer communication and disclosure rules that were designed primarily
for an era of physical mail and telephone calls. Treasury has identied some opportunities for
reform of the TCPA and FDCPA regulatory regimes but recommends that regulators proactively
identify other rules in need of revision.
Treasury recommends that the FCC continue its eorts to address the issue of unwanted calls
through the creation of a reassigned numbers database. Treasury recommends that the FCC create
a safe harbor for calls to reassigned numbers that provides callers a sucient opportunity to learn
that the number has been reassigned.
In addition, Treasury recommends that the FCC provide clear guidance on reasonable methods for
consumers to revoke consent under the TCPA.
Additionally, Congress should consider statutory changes to the TCPA to mitigate unwanted calls
to consumers and provide for a revocation standard similar to that provided under the FDCPA.
Treasury also recommends that the Bureau promulgate regulations under the FDCPA to codify that
reasonable digital communications, especially when they reect a consumer’s preferred method,
are appropriate for use in debt collection.
Closing the Digital Divide
“Digital divide” describes the gap between populations that have access to modern information
and communication technology and those that have no or limited access. e FCC estimates
30% of people living in rural America lack access to broadband compared to 2.1% of people
in urban areas, which means that nearly 24 million rural Americans cannot fully access the
benets of the digital economy.
34
Access to the digital economy allows Americans to benet
from the rapid growth of technology and innovation.
Broadband access has become increasingly important for economic opportunity, job creation,
education, and civic engagement. Rural communities have made large gains in adopting
technology, but substantial segments of rural America still lack the infrastructure needed for
high-speed internet, and any access that rural areas have is often slower than that of non-
rural areas.
35
In February 2017, the FCC took action designed to expand and preserve mobile
coverage across rural America and in tribal lands.
36
e FCC stated that the next stages of the
34. Federal Communications Commission, 2018 Broadband Deployment Report (Feb. 2, 2018), available at:
https://apps.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/FCC-18-10A1.pdf.
35.
Andrew Perrin, Pew Research Center, Digital Gap Between Rural and Nonrural America Persists,
blog post (May 19, 2017), available at: http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/05/19/
digital-gap-between-rural-and-nonrural-america-persists/.
36. Federal Communications Commission, In the Matter of Connect America Fund Universal Service Reform –
Mobility Fund, Report and Order and Further Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (Feb. 23, 2017), available at:
https://apps.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/FCC-17-11A1_Rcd.pdf.
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22
Connect America Fund
37
will be implemented and will provide additional funding for rural
xed broadband over the next decade.
38
Additional support for these eorts is reected in Executive Order 13821, which states that
“it shall therefore be the policy of the executive branch to use all viable tools to accelerate the
deployment and adoption of aordable, reliable, modern, high-speed broadband connectivity
in rural America.”
39
Concurrently, the President instructed the Secretary of the Interior to
develop a plan to increase access to tower facilities and other infrastructure managed by the
Department of the Interior in rural America for broadband deployment.
40
Deployment of more infrastructure to support broadband in rural areas will help to close the
digital divide and assist more Americans in underserved communities to participate in the
digital economy and overcome geographic isolation.
Consumer Financial Data
As a result of digitization, vast amounts of data now exist in forms that can be readily aggregated
and analyzed with computing power. Online and mobile applications that draw on these data
make it possible for consumers to view banking and other nancial account information, often
held at dierent nancial institutions, on a single platform, monitor the performance of their
investments in real-time, compare nancial and investment products, and even make payments
or execute transactions. Applications can also assist with automatic savings, budget advice, credit
decisions, and fraud and identity theft detection in real-time.
41
In short, digitized record-keeping and these applications have exponentially improved a consumer’s
ability to make nancial decisions. It has given rise to a new sector of nonbank nancial institu-
tions focused on products and services utilizing data aggregation, based on data obtained with the
consumer’s consent. e rise of such nancial institutions presents questions regarding the way in
which they operate and are currently regulated.
37. The Connect America Fund, also known as the Universal Service High-Cost Fund, is the FCC’s program to
expand voice and broadband services for areas where they are unavailable.
38.
Federal Communications Commission, Connect America Fund Phase II Auction Scheduled for July 24, 2018 -
Notice and Filing Requirements and Other Procedures for Auction 903 (Feb. 1, 2018), available at: https://apps.
fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/FCC-18-6A1.pdf.
39. Executive Order 13821, Streamlining and Expediting Requests to Locate Broadband Facilities in Rural
America (Jan. 8, 2018) [83 Fed. Reg. 1507 (Jan. 11, 2018)].
40.
Executive Office of the President, Supporting Broadband Tower Facilities in Rural America on Federal
Properties Managed by the Department of the Interior (Jan. 8, 2018) [83 Fed. Reg. 1511 (Jan. 12, 2018)].
41.
See Letter from the Center for Financial Services Innovation to the Bureau of Consumer Financial Protection,
CFPB-2016-0048 Request for Information Regarding Consumer Access to Financial Records (Feb. 21,
2017), available at: https://www.regulations.gov/document?D=CFPB-2016-0048-0047.
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Data Aggregation
Data aggregation generally refers to any process in which information from one or more sources is
compiled and standardized into a summary form.
42
Often data are aggregated for specic business
or research purposes such as statistical analysis, performance tracking, or recordkeeping. As of the
end of June 2018, ve of the largest publicly-traded U.S. companies by market capitalization are
integral drivers of the digital economy and use data aggregation for telecommunications, logistics,
marketing, social media, and other purposes.
43
How Data Aggregation Works
At the most basic level, data aggregation in the nancial services sector necessarily involves consum-
ers, nancial services rms, data aggregators, and consumer nancial technology (ntech) application
providers. “Consumers” are the individuals who are users of nancial services and the principal pro-
viders of the information collected by nancial service companies. In the consumer nancial services
data aggregation framework, consumers decide which applications to use in order to access their data,
give consent for that access, and provide necessary authentication (i.e., login) information.
“Financial services companies” or “nancial services rms” include banks, mutual funds, insurance
companies, broker-dealers, wealth management rms, and other nancial institutions that provide
traditional retail banking, depository, credit, brokerage, investment, and other account manage-
ment services to consumers. ese companies are the sources of consumer nancial account and
transaction data.
“Data aggregators” are the rms that access, aggregate, share, and store consumer nancial account
and transaction data they acquire through connections to nancial services companies. Aggregators
are intermediaries between the ntech applications that consumers use to access their data, on the
one hand, and the sources of data at nancial services companies on the other. An aggregator may
be a generic provider of data to consumer ntech application providers and other third parties, or
it may be part of a company providing branded and direct services to consumers.
Finally, “consumer ntech application providers” are the rms that access consumer nancial
account and transaction data, either from data aggregators or nancial services companies, in
order to provide value-added products and services to consumers. Consumers access these services
through “ntech applications” — i.e., the websites or mobile apps — created by these rms.
Consumer ntech application providers may also have direct links to nancial services companies
in order to, for example, provide direct services to a bank’s customers, access payments systems, or
facilitate credit origination.
Operationally, the key data aggregation processes involve acquiring, compiling, standardizing, and
disseminating consumer nancial data. Data aggregators may dier in the breadth and sophistica-
tion of the aggregation services they oer, and may specialize in dierent types of data or target a
42. See also Request for Information Regarding Consumer Access to Financial Records (Nov. 14, 2016) [81 Fed.
Reg. 83806, 83808-09 (Nov. 22, 2016)] (“Data Aggregation RFI”).
43.
These companies are Apple, Amazon, Alphabet [Google], Microsoft, and Facebook, based on Treasury analysis
of Bloomberg data.
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specic developer base.
44
Some data aggregators may focus on aggregating nancial account bal-
ances, transactions data, or credit card activity, for example, or they may primarily support con-
sumer ntech application providers geared toward oering specic products (such as auto loans or
mortgages) or services (such as peer-to-peer payments or budget tracking).
44. For an account of the evolution of data aggregation services, see Michael Kitces, The Six Levels of Account
Aggregation #FinTech and PFM Portals for Financial Advisors, blog post (Oct. 9, 2017), available at: https://
www.kitces.com/blog/six-levels-account-aggregation-pfm-fintech-solutions-accounts-advice-automation/.
Figure 2: Participants in the Consumer Financial Services Data Aggregation Framework
Participant Description Role
Consumers • Individuals • Choose which fintech applications serve needs
• Accept terms and conditions
• Give consent for data sharing
• Provide login credentials or other information for
authentication
Data
aggregators
• Firms that aggregate consumer
financial data to share with other
third-parties, e.g. consumer fintech
application providers
• Firms that aggregate consumer
financial data to provide branded
and direct services to consumers
• Compile consumer financial account and
transaction data obtained (1) through consumer-
provided credentials (e.g., screen-scraping)
and/or (2) through authorized connections with
financial services companies (e.g., APIs)
• Provide data to consumer fintech application
providers and other third-parties
• May develop own fintech applications
• Often invisible to consumers
Consumer
fintech
application
providers
• Third-party firms offering value-
added financial products and
services to consumers
• Create and market fintech applications for
consumers
• Frequently rely on data from aggregators to run
applications
• Applications enable consumers to monitor
accounts, track budget and financial goals, pay
bills, make peer-to-peer payments, take out loans,
receive investment advice, etc.
Financial
services
companies
• Retail banks and other depository
institutions
• Retail broker-dealers
• Mutual fund companies
• Wealth management firms
• Insurance companies
• Other traditional financial
institutions
• Provide traditional banking, investment, insurance
and other financial services to consumers
• Sources of consumer financial account and
transaction data
• Data may be accessed directly (e.g., APIs) or
indirectly (e.g., screen-scraping)
Source: Treasury staff analysis.
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In general, data aggregators make data available by providing a platform on or through which con-
sumer ntech application providers can build and run their applications and provide an interface
with consumers. Because data aggregators are few in number compared to nancial services com-
panies — a relative handful versus thousands — and because they have generally sunk the costs of
connecting to nancial services companies, consumer ntech application providers only have to
“build” to the data aggregators’ specications and not to hundreds or thousands of platforms run
by individual nancial institutions.
45
Before these processes and interfaces can commence, however, a data aggregator requires access to
consumers’ data housed at nancial services companies. At present, there are two primary methods
through which data aggregators gain access to consumer nancial data: “screen-scraping” and
application programming interfaces (APIs).
Screen-Scraping
When data aggregators and consumer ntech application providers lack a direct connection to run
ntech applications using data housed at nancial services companies, they often rely on screen-
scraping. In screen-scraping, consumers provide their account login credentials — usernames and
passwords — in order to use the ntech application.
46
Consumers may or may not appreciate that
they are providing their credentials to a third-party, and not logging in directly to their nan-
cial services company. Using these login credentials, data aggregators access consumers’ nancial
45. By one data aggregator’s account, there are eight major aggregators of consumer-authorized data in the United
States. See MX Technologies Inc., A List of Financial Data Aggregators in the United States, blog post (Mar. 5,
2018), available at: https://www.mx.com/moneysummit/a-list-of-financial-data-aggregators-in-the-united-states.
The listed data aggregators were Intuit, Quovo, Plaid, Envestnet/Yodlee, Morningstar/ByAllAccounts, Fiserv/
CashEdge, Finicity, and MX.
46.
Screen-scraping is not a recent development. As far back as 2001, regulators identified the practice of shar-
ing consumer login credentials for data aggregation services as raising additional risks. See Office of the
Comptroller of the Currency, Bank-Provided Account Aggregation Services, OCC Bulletin 2001-12 (Feb.
28. 2001), available at: https://www.occ.gov/news-issuances/bulletins/2001/bulletin-2001-12.html; Federal
Financial Institutions Examination Council, E-Banking
, IT Examination Handbook (Aug. 2003), at App. D, avail-
able at: https://ithandbook.ffiec.gov/media/274777/ffiec_itbooklet_e-banking.pdf.
Fintech
application
Consumer
fintech
provider
Consumer
login
credentials
Consumer
login
credentials
Data
aggregator
Login credentials
Consumer data
Consumer
login
credentials
Bank 1
Bank 2
Bank 3
Figure 3: Screen-Scraping
Consumers
Source: Treasury staff analysis.
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accounts, and then, either manually or through specialized software, acquire the nancial account
and transaction data and even process data requests or execute transactions. Equally concerning,
nancial services companies are not always aware when screen-scraping methods are being used to
access their customers’ data.
Although screen-scraping can be an eective method of obtaining data, it is generally considered
to have certain vulnerabilities and drawbacks. Many of the risks and concerns associated with
data aggregation described in this report — whether for consumers, nancial services companies,
consumer ntech application providers, or data aggregators themselves — stem from the practice
of screen-scraping.
Application Programming Interfaces
e second method of accessing consumer nancial account and transaction data is through an
API or similar form of direct feed. For purposes of this report, an API can be loosely described
as a clearly specied program that links two or more systems and that enables a well-dened
communication and data exchange between them in order to run applications and other software.
An API is not a specic technology, but rather a technology-enabled agreement or protocol that
enables a computer system or source of data to interact with or be used by other software.
47
Unlike
in the case of screen-scraping, data aggregation through an API generally means that nancial
services companies are knowingly participating in the sharing of data. As such, nancial services
companies can potentially deploy APIs that allow for the inclusion of robust security features,
greater transparency and access controls for consumers, improved data accuracy, and more pre-
dictable and manageable information technology costs. APIs, however, cost money to develop,
which could raise particular hurdles for smaller nancial institutions with fewer information
technology resources.
APIs may be designed to be open or they may be restricted to selected partners. In an open API,
any third-party data aggregator or consumer ntech application provider that meets certain prede-
termined and published standards (e.g., security, licensing, etc.) can gain access to consumer data
and build consumer-facing applications. In contrast, partnered APIs entail bilateral and exclusive
agreements between nancial services companies and data aggregators or consumer ntech appli-
cation providers. In either case, the API method of access is generally enabled through consumer
consent provided to the nancial services company or at the API access point rather than through
giving consumer login credentials to third-parties.
47. To illustrate how this works, think for example of nearly any app or website — for example, for ride-sharing ser-
vices, retail stores, special events, etc. — that includes a map or the ability to provide point-to-point (or turn-
by-turn) directions. These apps and websites generally do not create their own maps and navigation software.
Instead, they would incorporate the maps and navigation software of an internet-based provider that specializes
in aggregating mapping and navigation data. This provider makes its mapping and navigation products available
for use by third-parties by establishing an API that includes instructions, tools, and other resources that enable
software developers to incorporate such products into their own apps and websites.
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Fintech app Data aggregator
Data flow
Bank
Fintech app 1
Fintech app 2
Fintech app 3
Data aggregator 1
Data aggregator 2
Open
API
Bilateral/
partnered
API
Bank 1
Bank 2
Bank 3
Figure 4: Application Programming Interfaces (AP
I)
A. Bilateral/Partnered API
B. Open API
Login credentials
Consumers
Consumers
Login credentials
Source: Treasury staff analysis.
Efforts to Improve Data Aggregation
Data aggregators, consumer ntech application providers, and nancial services companies gener-
ally agree that consumers should have secure and reliable access to their nancial account and
transaction data, and that, in principle, consumers, if they opt-in, should be able to utilize ntech
applications and other innovations that make use of their data. However, there is a lack of consen-
sus on what secure and reliable access entails. As described by one observer, “the U.S. debate seems
stuck at the yet-to-be resolved issue of migrating account aggregators from screen scraping-based
to more secure and ecient API-based data-sharing methodologies.”
48
As long as this impasse
remains unresolved, consumers will be caught in the middle.
Consequently, data aggregators, consumer ntech application providers, and nancial services compa-
nies in the United States are looking for better approaches to data aggregation. Despite the recognized
advantages of using APIs as opposed to screen-scraping methods for data aggregation, current APIs have
their limitations. Some data aggregators have entered into bilateral agreements to obtain data through
an API, but this approach can be dicult to scale given the large number of U.S. nancial services
companies. In addition, data aggregators told Treasury that access through APIs was frequently and
48. Bob Hedges, The Clearing House, Banking Perspectives: Consumer Data in an API-Enabled World
(4th Qtr. 2017), available at: https://www.theclearinghouse.org/banking-perspectives/2017/2017-q4-banking-
perspectives/articles/open-banking.
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unilaterally restricted, interrupted, or terminated by nancial services companies.
49
Hence, Treasury’s
understanding is that a signicant amount of data is still obtained through screen-scraping.
Much of the focus is on improving API methods to resolve issues such as standardizing data
elements and fair and proportional allocation of liability and accountability in the event of a data
breach. In some cases, participants from across the data aggregation framework are collaborating to
develop robust open APIs that serve the needs of all stakeholders.
50
Further, trade groups are also
starting to solidify views and have developed principles with respect to data aggregation.
51
Open Banking in the United Kingdom
In considering regulatory approaches for data aggregation, the eorts in other countries
that have created their own regulatory regimes for consumer access to nancial account
and transaction data can provide a useful comparison point. In August 2016, the United
Kingdom’s Competition and Markets Authority (CMA) issued a report, which concluded
that the market for retail banking was not suciently competitive and was dominated
by large banks. e CMA outlined a package of remedies called Open Banking, which
required the nine largest U.K. banks to adopt “open API banking standards… [and] to
make data available using these standards.”
52
Other banks can opt-in on a voluntary basis.
49. See also Robin Sidel, Big Banks Lock Horns with Personal-Finance Web Portals, The Wall Street Journal
(Nov. 4, 2015).
50.
One such effort is being carried out through the OFX Consortium, the origins of which date back to 1997.
The OFX specification is one of original standards for the exchange of financial information between consum-
ers and financial services providers. In April 2016, the OFX Consortium released OFX 2.2, which introduced
new standards including data tags and tokenized authentication solutions for sharing consumer financial data.
See OFX Consortium, OFX 2.2 Released with OAuth-Token based Authentication¸ Business Wire (Apr. 7,
2016), available at: https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20160407006078/en/OFX-2.2-Released-
OAuth-Token-based-Authentication. A more recent effort is that of the Aggregation Services Working Group
of the FS-ISAC. The Working Group, which consists of representatives from financial services companies,
data aggregators, and fintech developers, recently issued the second version of its API for secure, tokenized
data transfer. See Financial Services Information Sharing and Analysis Center, Press Release – FS-ISAC
Enables Safer Financial Data Sharing with API (Feb. 13, 2018), available at: https://www.fsisac.com/article/
fs-isac-enables-safer-financial-data-sharing-api.
51.
See, e.g., Securities Industry and Financial Markets Association, SIFMA Data Aggregation Principles (Apr.
2018), available at: https://www.sifma.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/sifma-Data-Aggregation-Principles.
pdf. The SIFMA principles affirm that consumers “may use third-parties to access their financial account data”
and “such access should be safe and secure.” See also Renee Hobbs, Envestnet|Yodlee, Envestnet|Yodlee,
Quovo and Morningstar ByAllAccounts: Statement of Joint Principles for Ensuring Consumer Access to
Financial Data, blog post (May 11, 2018), available at: https://www.yodlee.com/blog/envestnet-yodlee-quovo-
and-morningstar-byallaccounts-statement-of-joint-principles-for-ensuring-consumer-access-to-financial-data/.
These three data aggregators proposed a “Secure Open Data Access” framework, which includes the follow-
ing four components: (1) consumers must be able to access their financial account data for purposes of using
any legitimate application; (2) consumers must provide affirmative consent on the basis of clear and conspicu-
ous disclosure regarding the use of their data; (3) all entities who handle consumer account information must
adhere to best practices for security standards and implement traceability/transparency; and (4) the entity
responsible for a consumer’s financial loss must make the consumer whole.
52.
See Competition and Markets Authority, Retail Banking Market Investigation: Final Report (Aug. 9, 2016), at
441-461, available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/57ac9667e5274a0f6c00007a/retail-
banking-market-investigation-full-final-report.pdf.
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ese remedies are aimed at increasing competition, including lowering costs for consumers
switching between nancial institutions.
e rst stage of Open Banking went live in March 2017, when the covered banks were required
to make certain “open data” — i.e., public information such as the location of branches and
automated teller machines as well as the terms of certain banking products — widely available
online. e full Open Banking standard came into eect in January 2018. e CMA estab-
lished the nonprot Open Banking Implementation Entity (OBIE) to work with banks and
third-party ntech developers to help integrate with Open Banking and to test their products
and services based on the data. Fintech developers enrolled in Open Banking must be regulated
by the U.K. Financial Conduct Authority.
53
Open Banking uses “read/write” APIs with standards and specications dened by OBIE.
To securely access and share data, the participating banks develop API “endpoints” on which
ntech developers can build applications. e use of APIs permits consumers to retain full
control over their account information. Consumers must give explicit consent before using
any ntech applications and are redirected to their bank’s login screen to enter their login
credentials. Consumers determine which information can be accessed, for how long and for
what purpose, and can revoke their consent at any time. Shared data is encrypted and its usage
is tracked, and only regulated persons can access it.
ere are signicant dierences between the United States and the United Kingdom with
respect to the size, nature, and diversity of the nancial services sector and regulatory mandates.
Given those dierences, an equivalent Open Banking regime for the U.S. market is not readily
applicable. Nonetheless, as Open Banking matures in the United Kingdom, U.S. nancial
regulators should observe developments and learn from the British experience.
Issues and Recommendations
Consumers’ ability to realize the benets of data aggregation is limited, in part due to the lack
of agreement between data aggregators and nancial services companies over access to consumer
nancial account and transaction data. However, Treasury recognizes that signicant strides have
been made in recent years to bridge these disagreements. As information and data technology
advances, and with sustained commitment to the principle that consumers should be able to
freely access and use their nancial account and transaction data, Treasury believes that improved
approaches to data aggregation that will benet consumers and nancial institutions alike are
surely attainable.
Consumer Access to Financial Account and Transaction Data
e only express statutory provision regarding access to a consumer’s own nancial account and
transaction data is Section 1033 of the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection
Act (Dodd-Frank).
54
It states that, subject to rules prescribed by the Bureau, nancial services
53. As of July 2018, there were 33 regulated third-party providers enrolled in Open Banking. See https://www.
openbanking.org.uk/regulated-providers/.
54.
Codified at 12 U.S.C. § 5533.
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companies subject to the Bureau’s jurisdiction as covered persons
55
are required to make available
to a consumer, upon request, certain nancial account and transaction data concerning any prod-
uct or service obtained by the consumer from that nancial services company.
56
is data must be
made available in an electronic form usable by the consumer.
57
In November 2016, the Bureau issued a request for information to better understand the benets
and risks associated with market developments that rely upon data aggregation.
58
Subsequently, the
Bureau published nonbinding principles in October 2017 expressing a vision for a “robust, safe,
and workable data aggregation market,”
59
although it noted that “few, if any, individual stakehold-
ers” enumerated all of the consumer protection concerns presented in the principles.
60
As described by the Bureau, nancial data subject to consumer and consumer-authorized access
may include any transaction, series of transactions, or other aspect of consumer usage, the terms of
any account, such as a fee schedule, realized consumer costs, such as fees or interest paid, and real-
ized consumer benets, such as interest earned or rewards.
61
e principles underscore the role of
companies that access consumers’ nancial data, with their permission, in order to provide services
that hold the promise of “improved and innovative consumer nancial products and services.”
62
In addition to the Bureau, other groups have developed their own principles for data aggregation,
including the Securities Industry and Financial Markets Association, the Consumer Financial
Data Rights Coalition, and the Center for Financial Services Innovation.
63
While Treasury is not
endorsing any particular set of principles, they contain common themes on topics such as security,
access, and consumer consent, which can form the basis for consensus on consumer-authorized
data aggregation.
55. Under Section 1002(6) of Dodd-Frank [12 U.S.C. § 5481(6)], a “covered person” is defined as “any person
that engages in offering or providing a consumer financial product or service,” and any affiliate of such a person,
if the affiliate acts as a service provider to that person. Notwithstanding the broad definition of “covered person,”
other provisions place limits on the Bureau’s jurisdiction for certain entities. See, e.g., 12 U.S.C. § 5517.
56. 12 U.S.C. § 5533(a). Section 1033, however, applies only to information that the covered person can retrieve
in the ordinary course of its business with respect to that information. 12 U.S.C. § 5533(b)(4).
57.
12 U.S.C. § 5533(a).
58. Data Aggregation RFI.
59. Bureau of Consumer Financial Protection, Consumer Protection Principles: Consumer-Authorized Financial
Data Sharing and Aggregation (Oct. 18, 2017), available at: https://s3.amazonaws.com/files.consumerfinance.
gov/f/documents/cfpb_consumer-protection-principles_data-aggregation.pdf (“Bureau Data Principles”).
60. Bureau of Consumer Financial Protection, Consumer-Authorized Financial Data Sharing and Aggregation:
Stakeholder Insights that Inform the Consumer Protection Principles (Oct. 18, 2017), at 2, available at: https://
files.consumerfinance.gov/f/documents/cfpb_consumer-protection-principles_data-aggregation_stakeholder-
insights.pdf (“Bureau Stakeholder Insights”).
61.
Bureau Data Principles, at 3.
62. Id. at 1.
63. See footnote 51. See also Center for Financial Services Innovation, CFSI’s Consumer Data Sharing Principles:
A Framework for Industry-Wide Collaboration (Oct. 2016), available at: https://s3.amazonaws.com/cfsi-innova-
tion-files-2018/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/27001530/2016-Consumer-Data-Sharing-CDAWG-One-pager-
Final-1.pdf.
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Direct Consumer Access Versus Consumer-Authorized Access
In response to the Bureau’s request for information, conicting views were expressed on whether
data aggregators are covered by Section 1033.
64
Some nancial services companies argued that
access rights apply only to direct consumer access to their data but not to consumer-authorized
access through a data aggregator or a ntech application. In contrast, consumer groups, data aggre-
gators, and consumer ntech application providers asserted that consumers are entitled to access
their nancial account and transaction data via ntech applications.
e denition of “consumer” in Title X of Dodd-Frank includes not only an individual, but
“an agent, trustee, or representative acting on behalf of an individual.”
65
is denition is best
interpreted to cover circumstances in which consumers armatively authorize, with adequate
disclosure, third parties such as data aggregators and consumer ntech application providers to
access their nancial account and transaction data from nancial services companies. Otherwise,
narrowly interpreting Section 1033 as applying only to direct consumer access would do little to
advance consumer interests by eliminating many of the benets they derive from data aggregation
and the innovations that ow through from ntech applications.
Recommendation
Treasury recommends that the Bureau arm that for purposes of Section 1033, third parties
properly authorized by consumers, including data aggregators and consumer ntech application
providers, fall within the denition of “consumer” under Section 1002(4) of Dodd-Frank for the
purpose of obtaining access to nancial account and transaction data.
Entities Covered by Data Access Requirements
Section 1033 applies only to “covered persons” under Dodd-Frank, which includes a subset of
nancial services companies. Furthermore, the Bureau’s jurisdiction is subject to limitations for
some nancial services companies subject to regulation by other federal or state regulators, includ-
ing: persons regulated by a state securities commission, to the extent that such persons act in a
regulated capacity, or by the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC);
66
persons regulated by
the Department of Labor (DOL) that are oering 401(k) plans or employee benet plans;
67
and
persons regulated by state insurance regulators that are oering insurance products.
68
Financial services companies primarily regulated by regulators other than the Bureau play impor-
tant roles in the retirement savings plans of many Americans. While one approach is to expand the
scope of Section 1033 to expressly include these companies, Treasury does not believe that step is
necessary. Treasury has not identied evidence of market failure with respect to electronic access
to data held by nancial services companies not subject to Section1033. In outreach meetings,
nancial planners and investment advisers advised Treasury that many broker-dealers and their
64. See Bureau Stakeholder Insights, at 4-5.
65. 12 U.S.C. § 5481(4).
66. See 12 U.S.C. § 5517(h)-(i).
67. See 12 U.S.C. § 5517(g).
68. See 12 U.S.C. § 5517(f).
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custodians have been providing nancial account and transaction data in a usable electronic format
for a long time.
69
Such data, for instance, is needed to produce performance reports and monitor
asset allocations. However, in outreach meetings with Treasury, nancial planners and investment
advisers indicated that the current data feeds from broker-dealers were generally reliable.
Recommendations
Treasury recommends that regulators such as the SEC, Financial Industry Regulatory Authority,
DOL, and state insurance regulators recognize the benets of consumer access to nancial account
and transaction data in electronic form and consider what measures, if any, may be needed to
facilitate such access for entities under their jurisdiction.
70
However, Treasury recommends against
further legislative action to expand the scope of Section 1033 at this time.
Consumer Disclosure, Consent, and Termination
e products and services discussed in this section require consumer authorization as the legal basis
for accessing the nancial account and transaction data. But consumers cannot make informed
choices without transparent, comprehensible, and readily accessible disclosure. Without adequate
disclosure, consumers will be unable to clearly understand and weigh the risks and benets of using
ntech applications and letting third-parties access and use their personal and nancial data.
Some ntech applications and data aggregators make hard-to-follow disclosures as to which nan-
cial account and transaction data will be obtained and how that data will be utilized and stored.
In other cases, the disclosures, terms, and conditions may be hard to nd or they may be written
in dense legalistic language that induces the consumer to head straight to the “accept” button, or
else forgo usage of the service.
Disclosures may not be fully eective to the extent that consumers remain unaware of the data
relationships underlying the services they are using. For example, for ntech applications that
rely on a data aggregator to obtain or process the consumer’s nancial account and transaction
data, the role of the data aggregator may be opaque to the consumer. As consumers increasingly
access ntech applications through their mobile devices, the likelihood that they will read and
understand long and meticulous disclosures diminishes.
While complex disclosures designed to protect service providers rather than inform consumers
are a problem, consumers should make every eort to read disclosures so that they understand
their rights and obligations. It is not enough to assert that measures are needed to ensure that
consumers understand what they are agreeing to when they use third-party applications. As one
observer wrote, “[d]isclosures written in plain language might increase consumer awareness, but
69. A number of the financial planners and investment advisers indicated that it was more difficult to obtain data
from 401(k) plans, particularly the smaller ones, than from traditional broker-dealers.
70.
See, e.g., General Instruction C.(3).g of Form N-1A under the Securities Act and Investment Company Act
(requiring electronic machine-readable information about mutual funds).
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that only works if consumers actually read the ‘Terms and Conditions’ before downloading the
latest nancial app.”
71
While consumers have to some extent become conditioned to opt for convenience over security,
they nevertheless continue to look to their primary nancial institutions for protection of their
personal and nancial data.
72
is raises issues of importance for these nancial institutions,
including how to verify that their customers have in fact authorized a third party to access their
account or initiate a transaction. Further, data aggregators may obtain signicantly more consumer
nancial data than necessary to provide the service that the customer requested, often unknown
to the customer. e implications of these features give rise to a potentially wide cascade of issues
regarding downstream use of the data, including broader issues related to data privacy that are
beyond the scope of this report.
Finally, consumers should have an easy way to revoke their consent to data aggregator access to
their nancial account and transaction data. Otherwise, data aggregators may retain and continue
to use the data and, in some circumstances, may even be able to acquire additional data. It is
important that requirements regarding customer authorization be improved to allow customers to
exercise control over the scope and duration of data being obtained, how the data is used, and to
whom it may be provided.
Recommendations
Treasury recommends that the Bureau work with the private sector to develop best practices on
disclosures and terms and conditions regarding consumers’ use of products and services powered
by consumer nancial account and transaction data provided by data aggregators and nancial
services companies. e goal should be to provide disclosures and terms and conditions that are
written in plain language, readily accessible, readable through the preferred device used by consum-
ers to access services, and presented in a reasonably simple and intuitive format so that consumers
can give informed and armative consent regarding to whom they are granting access, what data is
being accessed and shared, and for what purposes. If necessary, the Bureau should consider issuing
principles-based disclosure rules pursuant to its authority under Section 1032 of Dodd-Frank.
73
Treasury also believes that consumers should have the ability to revoke their prior authorization
that permits data aggregators and ntech applications to access their nancial account and transac-
tion data. Data aggregators and ntech applications should provide adequate means for consumers
71. Amber Goodrich, Computer Services, Inc., 5 Challenges of Sharing Consumer Data,
blog post (Nov. 8, 2017), available at: https://www.csiweb.com/resources/blog/
post/2017/11/08/5-challenges-of-sharing-consumer-data.
72. According to one survey, 91% of U.S. consumers willingly accept the terms and conditions of various mobile
applications and services without reading them; for ages 18 to 34 the acceptance rate of terms and condi-
tions, without reading them, is 97%. See Deloitte, 2017 Global Mobile Consumer Survey: US Edition (2017),
at 12, available at: https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/us/Documents/technology-media-tele-
communications/us-tmt-2017-global-mobile-consumer-survey-executive-summary.pdf. See also A.T. Kearney,
Key Findings from the Consumer Digital Behavior Study (Apr. 2018), available at: https://www.atkearney.com/
financial-services/the-consumer-data-privacy-marketplace/the-consumer-digital-behavior-study (“Consumers
view banks as their best agent in protecting consumer data privacy and security”).
73.
See 12 U.S.C. § 5532.
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to readily revoke the prior authorization. If necessary, banking regulators and the SEC should
consider issuing rules that require nancial services companies to comply with a consumer request
to limit, suspend, or terminate access to the consumer’s nancial account and transaction data by
data aggregators and ntech applications.
Moving Away from Screen-Scraping to More Secure Access Methods
e practice of using login credentials for screen-scraping poses signicant security risks, which
have been recognized for nearly two decades.
74
Screen-scraping increases cybersecurity and fraud
risks as consumers provide their login credentials to access ntech applications. During outreach
meetings with Treasury, there was universal agreement among nancial services companies, data
aggregators, consumer ntech application providers, consumer advocates, and regulators that the
sharing of login credentials constitutes a highly risky practice.
APIs are a potentially more secure method of accessing nancial account and transaction data than
screen-scraping. A number of foreign jurisdictions have opted to promote access through APIs,
in part due to security concerns. e United Kingdom, through its open banking initiative, has
specied regulatory standards for data sharing through APIs.
75
e European Union has adopted
the Revised Payment Service Directive (PSD2), which requires banks to grant licensed third-party
payment service providers access to bank infrastructure and account data. PSD2 also contemplates
the standardization of APIs.
76
Singapore has encouraged the use of bank APIs but has not made it
a regulatory mandate.
77
Data aggregators and consumer ntech application providers have expressed reservations with an
API approach. ey claim, for example, that their eorts to work with nancial services companies
to do away with screen-scraping have for the most part been met with resistance, and that nancial
services companies have largely refused to enable direct access to their data or to set up open APIs.
78
ere are concerns that without some sort of industry standard or regulatory guidance, API access
could be restricted to certain types of data dictated by the nancial services company, as opposed to
the consumer, susceptible to unexpected interruptions and terminations, and subject to unreason-
able and disproportionate liability.
Recommendations
Treasury sees a need to remove legal and regulatory uncertainties currently holding back nancial
services companies and data aggregators from establishing data sharing agreements that eectively
74. See footnote 46.
75. Open Banking Ltd., Guidelines for Read/Write Participants (ver. 3.2, May 2018), available at: https://www.openbanking.
org.uk/wpcore/wp-content/uploads/Guidelines-for-Read-Write-Participants.pdf.
76.
Directive (EU) 2015/2366 of the European Parliament and of the Council (Nov. 25, 2015), available at: http://
eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32015L2366&from=EN.
77.
Ong Chong Tee, Monetary Authority of Singapore, The Future of Banking – Evolution, Revolution or a Big
Bang? (Apr. 16, 2018), available at: http://www.mas.gov.sg/News-and-Publications/Speeches-and-Monetary-
Policy-Statements/Speeches/2018/The-Future-of-Banking.aspx.
78. See, e.g., Daniel Castro and Michael Steinberg, Center for Data Innovation, Blocked: Why Some Companies
Restrict Data Access to Reduce Competition and How Open APIs Can Help (Nov. 6, 2017), available at:
http://www2.datainnovation.org/2017-open-apis.pdf.
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move rms away from screen-scraping to more secure and ecient methods of data access. Treasury
believes that the U.S. market would be best served by a solution developed by the private sector,
with appropriate involvement of federal and state nancial regulators.
A potential solution should address data sharing, security, and liability. Any solution should explore
eorts to mitigate implementation costs for community banks and smaller nancial services com-
panies with more limited resources to invest in technology.
Liability for Unauthorized Access
Screen-scraping also appears tied to the issue of liability. Financial services companies have expressed
concerns that they may bear the burden of any losses arising from a breach at the data aggregator
or a downstream ntech application. Even if the consumer’s losses are not limited by Regulation
E,
79
such as when a consumer authorized a person other than the consumer to initiate an electronic
funds transfer by providing login credentials to such third party, the consumer may nonetheless
expect the bank or other nancial institution to make him or her whole for any losses.
Providing login credentials to a data aggregator creates opportunities for bad actors to illicitly
obtain such highly sensitive credentials and allow assets to be transferred out of the account.
Screen-scraping also can allow a data aggregator to obtain signicantly more data than needed by
the underlying ntech application, including sensitive personally identiable information, which
could be subsequently stolen.
80
Moving away from screen-scraping can facilitate resolution of the
liability issue by eliminating the need for login credentials, reducing the amount and sensitivity of
unnecessary data being acquired by data aggregators and decreasing the possibility of an unauthor-
ized transaction.
Some data aggregators have entered into agreements with nancial services companies to access
the nancial account and transaction data through an API but conditioned on contractual liability
and indemnication of the nancial services company. Other data aggregators have been unable
or unwilling to reach agreement on such terms. In such circumstances, data aggregators usually
continue to obtain data through screen-scraping.
As the U.S. Government Accountability Oce (GAO) has observed, the issue of nancial respon-
sibility for consumer losses and access to consumer nancial transaction data has been discussed at
meetings of federal banking regulators and the Bureau under the auspices of the Federal Financial
Institutions Examination Council (FFIEC). However, these discussions have not resulted in any
specic policy outcomes to guide market participants.
81
Without resolution of liability and other
79. 12 C.F.R. Part 205. Regulation E implements the Electronic Fund Transfer Act, which establishes a framework
of the rights, liabilities, and responsibilities of participants in the electronic fund and remittance transfer systems.
80.
The sensitivity of consumer financial transaction data can vary. For example, data indicating that a bank account
is a checking account may be less sensitive than the associated ABA routing and account numbers. If a fintech
application only needs to know the account type, then it would be unnecessary to obtain the more sensitive
ABA routing and account numbers.
81. U.S. Government Accountability Office, Financial Technology: Additional Steps by Regulators Could Better
Protect Consumers and Aid Regulatory Oversight (Mar. 2018) at 54-57, available at: https://www.gao.gov/
assets/700/690803.pdf (“GAO Fintech Report”). GAO reported that some regulators indicated that they had
not taken more steps to resolve the disagreements surrounding financial account aggregation because they are
concerned over acting too quickly. Id. at 56.
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issues, “consumers could have to choose between facing potential losses or not using what they
may nd to be an otherwise valuable nancial service, and ntech rms providing useful services
to consumers will face barriers to providing their oerings more broadly.”
82
Recommendations
Treasury recommends that any potential solution discussed in the prior recommendation also
address resolution of liability for data access. If necessary, Congress and nancial regulators should
evaluate whether federal standards are appropriate to address these issues.
Standardization of Data Elements
ere are other areas in which collaboration among market participants could improve consumers’
ability to use their data. Collaborative attempts have been made among nancial services compa-
nies, data aggregators, and consumer ntech application providers to create standardized data ele-
ments, including eorts by Open Financial Exchange (OFX) and Financial Services Information
Sharing and Analysis Center (FS-ISAC).
83
However, these eorts have not achieved full consensus
to date. A standardized set of data elements and formats would help to foster innovation in services
and products that use nancial account and transaction data, because it may be more ecient to
develop a single agreed-upon taxonomy. Data elements would need to be developed for a broad
range of products and services related to banking, investments, retirement, loans, insurance, and
taxes. Standardization could improve the market eciency for nancial products and services by
making it easier to engage in comparative analysis.
Data currently obtained by aggregators from separate nancial services companies can be incom-
patible and must be cleaned and standardized before it can be used. Financial services companies
often use “disparate and customized formats to send and share information, employing dierent
nomenclature for [otherwise] common terms.”
84
Recommendations
Treasury recommends that any potential solution discussed in the prior recommendation address
the standardization of data elements as part of improving consumers’ access to their data. Any
solution should draw upon existing eorts that have made progress on this issue to date. If neces-
sary, Congress and nancial regulators should evaluate whether federal standards are appropriate
to address these issues.
Clarifying When Data Aggregators Are Subject to Third-Party Guidance
Some banks have raised concerns over whether third-party guidance may apply if a bank enters
into an API agreement with a data aggregator that establishes terms of access, because the bank has
82. Id. at 57.
83. See footnote 50.
84. Conrad Sheehan, Accenture, To Capitalize on Open Banking, the Industry Needs Standards,
American Banker (Apr. 10, 2018), available at: https://www.americanbanker.com/opinion/
to-capitalize-on-open-banking-the-industry-needs-standards.
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entered into a contract.
85
ird party guidance clearly applies when a bank itself is providing data
aggregation as a service to its customers and has hired a data aggregator to collect the data with
its customer’s authorization because the data aggregator becomes a service provider to the bank.
But when the data aggregator has entered into an API agreement with the bank where it is not
providing a service to the bank, it is unclear whether third party guidance may still apply.
Data aggregators would not consider themselves service providers to banks when, for example, they
rely on screen-scraping to access nancial account and transaction data that has been authorized
by a consumer.
86
However, if data aggregators were to instead enter into an API agreement with a
bank, it may become subject to third-party guidance because of the contractual relationship, which
can increase compliance costs.
is regulatory uncertainty over the application of third-party guidance may, therefore, be inad-
vertently discouraging more API agreements between banks and data aggregators.
Recommendation
Treasury recommends that the banking regulators remove ambiguity stemming from the third-
party guidance that discourages banks from moving to more secure methods of data access such as
APIs. Further discussion of bank regulatory oversight of third-party relationships is addressed in
the following chapter on Aligning the Regulatory Framework to Promote Innovation.
Current Regulation of Data Aggregators
e greater the amount of consumer nancial account and transaction data that is retained by data
aggregators, the greater is the possible harm to consumers that could result from a data breach.
87
Although data aggregators do not have a specic regulatory scheme similar to banks or other
depository institutions, they are currently subject to regulation under the federal consumer protec-
tion laws administered by the FTC as well as state consumer protection laws.
88
Some nancial
services companies have suggested that the absence of the same level of regulatory oversight of
data aggregators and downstream consumer ntech application providers raises signicant risks
for consumers.
89
In particular, they have argued that the security practices of data aggregators are
not comparable to the standards applied at banks and the security practices of consumer ntech
application providers are even weaker.
85. Banking regulators have issued guidance for assessing and managing risks in third-party relationships. The
guidance views a third-party relationship as “any business arrangement between a bank and another entity, by
contract or otherwise.”
86.
Treasury is aware that some data aggregators have entered into agreements with banks, sometimes on an infor-
mal basis, while engaging in screen-scraping. For example, a data aggregator may agree to pull the data during
the night in order to minimize disruption to the bank’s computer systems.
87. In outreach meetings with Treasury, data aggregators have asserted that they mitigate data breach risk by only
retaining aggregated and anonymized data that is not associated with any personally identifiable information of
the consumer.
88.
To the extent that a data aggregator or consumer fintech application provider is providing services to a bank, the
services provided are subject to the third-party oversight framework imposed by banking regulators under the
Bank Services Company Act.
89.
American Bankers Association, Fintech – Promoting Responsible Innovation (May 2018), at 3-4, available at:
https://www.aba.com/Advocacy/Documents/fintech-treasury-report.pdf.
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Data aggregators and consumer ntech application providers are subject to the Gramm-Leach-
Bliley Act (GLBA),
90
which is a federal law specifying the ways that nancial institutions, including
some nonbank nancial institutions, protect the security and condentiality of nonpublic personal
information of individuals.
91
e provisions in GLBA govern how nancial institutions, as dened
under the statute,
92
implement administrative, technical, and physical safeguards to insure the
security and condentiality of customer records, protect against any anticipated threats or haz-
ards, and protect against unauthorized access.
93
Financial institutions must explain their policies
to their customers that are designed to safeguard sensitive data.
94
ese provisions of GLBA are
enforced by the FTC, the federal banking agencies, the SEC, and the Commodity Futures Trading
Commission (CFTC). To be compliant with GLBA, nancial institutions must apply specic
protections to customers’ private data in accordance with the institution’s data security plan.
To implement GLBA, the FTC set forth the primary information security provisions in its
Safeguards Rule.
95
e FTC’s Safeguards Rule requires nancial institutions to assess and develop a
documented security plan that describes the company’s program to protect customer information,
including the following areas particularly important to information security: employee manage-
ment and training, information systems, and detecting and managing system failures.
96
e intent
of the GLBA information security requirements in the Safeguards Rule is to protect consumers and
reduce reputational damage caused by unauthorized sharing or loss of private customer data. e
FTC has indicated that data aggregators and consumer ntech application providers signicantly
engaged in nancial services and products are nancial institutions under GLBA and therefore
subject to the Safeguards Rule.
97
In addition, there are eorts underway to regulate consumer-authorized data aggregation, includ-
ing potential legislation, at the state level. However, Treasury believes that state-by-state regulation,
which would be more cumbersome and costly to comply with as compared with regulation by a
single federal regulator, would not be workable given the complexity of data issues at hand.
Recommendation
Moving away from screen-scraping and eliminating the sharing of login credentials will address
the most signicant concerns raised about the need to increase regulation of data aggregators and
90. Public Law No. 106-102 [codified at 15 U.S.C. Ch. 94]. Also known as the Financial Services Modernization
Act of 1999.
91.
15 U.S.C. § 6801(a).
92. Financial institutions include companies that offer consumer financial products or services like loans, financial or
investment advice, or insurance.
93.
15 U.S.C. § 6801(b).
94. Id. § 6803(c)(3).
95. 15 U.S.C. §§ 6801, 6805(b); 16 C.F.R. Part 314.
96. 16 C.F.R. §§ 314.3 and 314.4.
97. Federal Trade Commission, Financial Institutions and Customer Information: Complying with the Safeguards
Rule (Apr. 2006), available at: https://www.ftc.gov/tips-advice/business-center/guidance/financial-institutions-
customer-information-complying (stating that the Safeguards Rule applies to companies that receive informa-
tion about the customers of other financial institutions).
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consumer ntech application providers. While data security concerns will remain an important
issue, the Safeguards Rule appropriately addresses such concerns.
98
To the extent that any additional regulation of data aggregation is necessary, Treasury recommends
that it occur at the federal level by regulators that have signicant experience in data security and
privacy, and that will have, through legislation if necessary, broad jurisdiction to ensure equivalent
treatment in the nonnancial sector.
Data Security and Breach Notification
Data Security Standards
e data security provisions of GLBA are enforced by the federal banking agencies for depository
institutions,
99
the SEC and the CFTC for entities under their jurisdiction, and the FTC for all
other nancial institutions.
100
With the exception of the FTC, these federal agencies are authorized
to routinely supervise and examine for compliance with these provisions of GLBA and their imple-
menting regulations. ese agencies all maintain authority to implement regulations for GLBA.
Data security standards are signicantly dierent between nonnancial companies, such as retail-
ers and manufacturers, and nancial institutions. Vast amounts of consumer payment credentials
and nancial data are routinely stored on a nonnancial company’s internal or third-party systems,
used for marketing purposes, or simply used to complete transactions instantly. Yet, nonnancial
companies are not subject to comprehensive federal data security standards under GLBA and are
not subject to routine examination for compliance with data security standards. e only height-
ened obligation to protect data comes from the exercise of the FTC’s authority under Section5 of
the Federal Trade Commission Act
101
to bring enforcement actions against nonnancial companies
for unfair or deceptive practices. e FTC has exercised this authority more than 60 times since
2002; however, this authority is limited to enforcement action and does not give the FTC supervi-
sion and examination rights over these nonnancial companies.
102
In addition to federal standards, nonnancial companies and nancial institutions subject to the
FTC’s jurisdiction under GLBA must comply with applicable state laws that impose heightened
or specic data security standards. To date, only 13 states have imposed data security standards for
protection of consumer nancial data, which have dierent requirements. For instance, Florida
requires a business to take “reasonable measures” to protect and secure personal information data
98. In addition to the information security requirements, GLBA also contains privacy requirements as to how finan-
cial institutions collect, use, and maintain nonpublic personal information and under what circumstances
that information can be shared. These provisions are applicable to financial institutions under the Bureau’s
Regulation P [12 C.F.R. Part 1016].
99.
See Interagency Guidelines Establishing Information Security Standards, as codified at 12 C.F.R. Part 30, App.
B (OCC); 12 C.F.R. Part 208, App. D-2 and Part 225, App. F (Federal Reserve); and 12 C.F.R. Part 364, App.
B (FDIC).
100.
Insurance data security was examined in the Asset Management and Insurance Report.
101. 15 U.S.C. § 45(a)(1).
102. Federal Trade Commission, Privacy & Data Security Update: 2017, available at: https://www.ftc.gov/system/
files/documents/reports/privacy-data-security-update-2017-overview-commissions-enforcement-policy-initia-
tives-consumer/privacy_and_data_security_update_2017.pdf.
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that is stored in “electronic form,” but Utah does not dierentiate between personal information
stored electronically or on paper.
103
Over the last several years, many nonnancial companies have been subject to signicant data
breaches of consumer nancial data. For example, in 2013, Target announced that payment card
information of 41 million consumers was compromised.
104
In 2014, Home Depot announced that
the payment card information of more than 50 million customers was stolen in a data breach.
105
More recently, the retailer Hudson’s Bay Co. advised roughly 5 million customers of its subsidiary
stores Lord & Taylor and Saks Fifth Avenue that their payment credentials had been compro-
mised.
106
Data breaches are not unique to nonnancial companies and have aected nancial
institutions as well.
107
Data Breach Notification
e United States does not have a national law establishing uniform national standards for notify-
ing consumers of data breaches, or for providing them a clear and straightforward mechanism for
resolving disputes.
108
In the absence of uniform national standards, states have been aggressive in
developing their own data breach notication laws. Each state law may apply to any company
located in that state or that does business with residents of that state. In practice, this means that
in the event of a data breach companies could be subject to the data breach notication laws of 50
states as well as of the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the U.S. Virgin Islands.
109
State laws for data breach notication often include specic provisions regarding the number of
aected individuals that will trigger notication requirements, the timing of notication, and form
of notication, among other requirements. Unsurprisingly, state data breach notication laws are
far from uniform. Indeed, they vary in a number of signicant ways, including with respect to
the most fundamental aspect, namely the scope of data covered under the denition of personal
103. Compare Fla. Stat. § 501.171(2) with Utah Code § 13-44-201.
104. Target Brands, Inc., Press Release – Target Confirms Unauthorized Access to Payment Card Data
in U.S. Stores (Dec. 19, 2013), available at: https://corporate.target.com/press/releases/2013/12/
target-confirms-unauthorized-access-to-payment-car.
105. The Home Depot, News Release – The Home Depot Reports Finding in Payment Data Breach Investigation
(Nov. 6, 2014), available at: http://ir.homedepot.com/news-releases/2014/11-06-2014-014517315.
106.
Mike Murphy, Saks, Lord & Taylor Data Breach May Affect 5 Million Customers,
MarketWatch (Apr. 1, 2018), available at: https://www.marketwatch.com/story/
saks-lord-taylor-data-breach-may-affect-5-million-customers-2018-04-01.
1 07. For example, JPMorgan Chase was subject to a data breach in 2014 and Equifax suffered a data breach in
2017.
108.
Federal banking regulators have adopted guidance for depository institutions in the event of unauthorized
access to customer information. See Interagency Guidance on Response Programs for Unauthorized Access to
Customer information and Customer Notice [70 Fed. Reg. 15736 (Mar. 29, 2005)].
109.
National Conference of State Legislatures, Security Breach Notification Laws (Mar. 29, 2018), available at:
http://www.ncsl.org/research/telecommunications-and-information-technology/security-breach-notification-
laws.aspx.
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information.
110
Other inconsistencies among states’ breach notication laws can make compli-
ance dicult for rms and entail disparate treatment for consumers. e lack of uniformity and
eciency aects both nonnancial companies and nancial institutions.
Recommendation
Congress has considered establishing a federal data security standard and breach notication
standard on several occasions. For example, during the 114
th
Congress, two separate bills, sharing
many common principles, successfully passed their respective committees.
111
During this Congress,
legislation has again been considered to establish these federal standards.
Treasury recommends that Congress enact a federal data security and breach notication law to
protect consumer nancial data and notify consumers of a breach in a timely manner. Such a law
should be based on the following principles:
• Protect consumer nancial data
• Ensure technology-neutral and scalable standards based on the size of an entity and type
of activity in which the entity engages
• Recognize existing federal data security requirements for nancial institutions
• Employ uniform national standards that preempt state laws
Digital Legal Identity
Digital identity products and services hold promise for improving the trustworthiness, secu-
rity, privacy, and convenience of identifying individuals and entities, thereby strengthening
the processes critical to the movement of funds, goods, and data as the global economy races
deeper into the digital age. Digital identity systems also have the potential to generate cost
savings and eciencies for nancial services rms. For instance, trustworthy digital identity
systems could improve customer identication and verication for onboarding and authoriz-
ing account access, general risk management, and antifraud measures.
Legal Identity
Legal identity is distinct from broader concepts of personal and social identity. Legal identity
is the specication of a unique natural or legal person that (1) is based on certain pre-specied
characteristics or attributes of the person that are intended to establish the person’s uniqueness,
(2)is recognized by the state under national law, and (3) ascribes legal rights and duties to
that person. Proof of legal identity is required to open a bank, brokerage, or other account at
a regulated nancial institution. Digital legal identity uses electronic means to unambiguously
assert and authenticate a real person’s unique legal identity.
110. For example, Maryland specifically includes biometric data of an individual such as a fingerprint, voice print,
genetic print, retina or iris image, or other unique biological characteristics, while other states do not. Compare
Md. Code Com. Law § 14-3501(d) [as amended by House Bill 974 (May 4, 2017)] with Nevada Rev. Stat.
§ 603A.040.
111. Data Security Act of 2015, H.R. 2205, 114th Cong.; Data Security and Breach Notification Act of 2015, H.R.
1770, 114th Cong.
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Portability
Digital identity systems potentially allow legal identity to be portable. Portable legal identity
means the individual’s veried identity credentials can be used to establish legal identity for new
customer relationships at unrelated nancial institutions or government entities, without each
nancial institution’s having to obtain and verify personally identiable information (PII) to
meet regulatory requirements. Portability requires developing interoperable digital identica-
tion products, systems, and processes. While not permitted in the private sector under current
regulations, trustworthy portable third-party digital identity services could potentially save
relying parties time and resources in identifying, verifying, and managing customer identities,
including for account opening and access. Portability could also potentially save customers
the inconvenience of having to prove and authenticate identity for each unrelated nancial
institution or government service, and reduce the risk of identity-theft stemming from the
repeated exposure of PII.
Components of a Digital Identity System
Digital identity systems may rely on various types of technology and use digital technology in
several ways,
112
but generally involve two essential components: (1) identity proong, enroll-
ment, and credentialing; and (2) authentication. ey may also involve a third component,
federation, which is optional, but allows identity to be portable. Identity proong and enroll-
ment may be digital or documentary, remote, or in-person. Credentialing, authentication, and
federation are always digital. Dierent identity service providers can provide some or all of the
components of a digital identity system.
Identity proong establishes that a subject is who they claim to be. It involves obtaining and
verifying that attribute evidence is genuine and accurate, and issuing a digital credential to
bind the veried identity to a real-life person. Identity proong depends on ocial govern-
ment registration and documentation/certication, or at least on governmentally recognized
registration and certication, for verication.
113
Authentication establishes that the person asserting identity is who he or she claims to be.
It involves conrming, through a secure digital authentication protocol, that the individual
asserting identity is in control of the technologies and credentials that bind the validated iden-
tity to a real person. Successful authentication provides reasonable, risk-based assurances to
the relying party that the subject asserting identity today is the same person who previously
112. For example, digital identity systems may use electronic databases to obtain and confirm attribute information
and/or store and manage records; digital credentials to authenticate identity for accessing mobile, online, and
offline financial activities; and digital biometrics to provide attributes to identify and/or a credential to authenti-
cate individuals.
113. National Institute of Standards and Technology, Digital Identity Guidelines – Enrollment and Identity Proofing
Requirements, NIST Special Publication 800-63A (June 2017), available at: https://pages.nist.gov/800-63-3/
sp800-63a.html (“NIST 800-63A”).
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asserted identity and accessed a nancial service, and is in fact a given identied customer.
Trustworthy authentication is key for combating account-access identity fraud.
114
Federation involves the use of federated identity architecture and assertions to convey the
results of an authentication process and, if requested or required, attribute information to
relying parties across a set of networked systems.
115
e National Institutes of Standards and Technology (NIST) of the U.S. Department of
Commerce has recently established risk-based technical standards for each of the component
processes of a digital identity system (enrollment and identity proong; authentication and
lifecycle management; and federation),
116
which are mandatory for the federal government,
but only voluntary for the private sector.
Public-Private Roles
Both the government and the private sector have important roles in establishing a trustwor-
thy U.S. digital identity ecosystem. In the United States, the private sector is generally relied
upon to develop innovative identity products, services, and business models, while the federal
government is ultimately responsible for establishing the minimum substantive requirements
for proving legal identity, including core attributes and acceptable attribute evidence. Federal
and state government authorities also provide the ocial government registration and the
related ocial root identity evidence (e.g., birth certicates, passports) on which legal identity
currently depends.
Public and private sector stakeholders need to work together to develop trustworthy digital
legal identity products and services for use in the nancial sector and elsewhere. To facilitate
this objective, stakeholders should address a number of issues, including:
• How to leverage the NIST guidelines to establish exible, risk-based standards for digital
customer identication and verication, keyed to the risk levels associated with specic
customers and/or types of nancial products and services
• How to ensure the trustworthiness, privacy, and cybersecurity of identity service providers,
such as government or industry certication and supervision
• Business models and liability allocation appropriate for establishing portable legal identity
• Ways the public and private sectors can eectively work together to reduce regulatory
burden and catalyze the market for trustworthy digital identity products and services
114. National Institute of Standards and Technology, Digital Identity Guidelines – Authentication and Lifecycle
Management, NIST Special Publication 800-63B (June 2017), available at: https://pages.nist.gov/800-63-3/
sp800-63b.html (“NIST 800-63B”).
115. National Institute of Standards and Technology, Digital Identity Guidelines, NIST Special Publication 800-63-3
(June 2017), at 14-15, available at: https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/SpecialPublications/NIST.SP.800-63-3.
pdf (“NIST 800-63-3”).
116. See NIST 800-63A, 800-63B, and NIST 800-63-3. The NIST digital identity guidelines set requirements for
three different levels of trustworthiness, called levels of assurance (LOAs), for each of these component pro-
cesses, based on the LOA’s degree of trustworthiness.
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Treasury recommends that nancial regulators work with Treasury to enhance public-private
partnerships to identify ways government can eliminate unintended or unnecessary regulatory
and other barriers and facilitate the adoption of trustworthy digital legal identity products
and services in the nancial services sector. is would include engaging the private sector to
help the nancial regulators adopt regulation in the legal identity space that is exible, risk-,
principles-, and performance-based, future-proofed, and technology-neutral. Treasury also
recognizes that the development of digital legal identity products and services in the nancial
services sector should be implemented in a manner that is compatible with solutions developed
across other sectors of the U.S. economy and government.
Treasury also supports the eorts of the Oce of Management and Budget to fully implement
the long-delayed U.S. government federated digital identity system. Treasury recommends
policies that would restore a public-private partnership model to create an interoperable digital
identity infrastructure and identity solutions that comply with NIST guidelines and would
reinvigorate the role of U.S. government-certied private sector identity providers, promoting
consumer choice and supporting a competitive digital identity marketplace. Treasury also seeks
to leverage the U.S. government federated identity system — in particular, its certication
and auditing regime for digital identity providers — to permit nancial institutions to use
digital identity services provided by certied providers to conduct customer identication and
verication for onboarding.
Finally, Treasury encourages public and private stakeholders to explore ways to leverage the
REAL ID Act
117
driver’s license regime — particularly, robust state REAL ID license identity-
proong processes — to provide trustworthy digital identity products and services for the
nancial sector.
The Potential of Scale
e ongoing digital transformation of the nancial services system is being driven not only by
developments in computing power, the expanding ubiquity and interconnection of computers and
mobile devices, and the exponential growth in digitized nancial data, but also by technologies
that can benet from advances in data and computing capacity at greater scale and with greater
eciency. Scalable technologies such as cloud computing enable nancial services companies to
store and process vast amounts of data and to quickly add new computing capacity to meet chang-
ing needs. At the same time, advances in big data analytics, machine learning, and articial intel-
ligence are expanding the frontiers of nancial services rms’ abilities to glean new and valuable
business insights from vast datasets.
Cloud Technology and Financial Services
Cloud technology is enabling organizations across the economy to more rapidly innovate by reduc-
ing barriers to entry to acquire high quality computing resources. Cloud computing, more speci-
cally, enables more convenient, on-demand access to computing resources (e.g., networks, servers,
1 17. Public Law No. 109-13.
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storage, applications, and services).
118
Cloud computing can be deployed through several models:
a public cloud, which refers to when these computing resources are available in a shared environ-
ment, accessible by multiple customers of the cloud service provider; a private cloud, which refers
to when these computing resources are dedicated for use by a single rm, but provided generally
in the same type of convenient, rapid, on-demand manner; or a hybrid cloud, which refers to an
arrangement consisting of a mix of cloud deployment models.
Figure 5: Cloud Adoption (percent of respondents)
Source: RightScale 2018 State of the Cloud Report.
Total Cloud Use = 96%
(percent of respondents)
Private cloud
75%
Public cloud
92%
Public and
Private
71%
Public
only
21%
Private
only
4%
Before the broad availability of a public cloud, only large organizations with ample budgets were
able to cover the costs involved with building out large-scale internal information technology (IT)
infrastructures. Firms would have to make large capital expenditures on computing and network-
ing hardware as well as maintain ongoing operating expenses for multiple layers of software and
large IT stas. With public cloud services, however, rms of all sizes can essentially lease a range of
computing resources and expertise from cloud service providers, potentially at lower cost.
Several large technology-focused rms have been central to the development of cloud computing,
and the growth of the public cloud market in particular. To achieve the scale necessary to maxi-
mize the potential of this technology requires substantial resources. For this reason, these rms
continue to dominate the market though competition has increased. e adoption of public cloud
is occurring throughout the economy with, for example, survey data suggesting that some 92% of
118. National Institute of Standards and Technology, The NIST Definition of Cloud Computing, Special Publication
800-145 (Sept. 2011), at 2-3, available at: https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/SP/nistspecialpublica-
tion800-145.pdf.
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businesses adopting at least some form of public cloud services.
119
Other sources forecast robust
growth in public cloud revenues
120
and data usage.
121
Types of Cloud Services
While traditional IT often requires rms to manage computing resources internally, cloud com-
puting is generally provided under three service models that provide varying degrees of outsourcing
and customization. Infrastructure-as-a-service (IaaS) gives clients the greatest overall control of
function and scale by allowing them to expand processing, storage, networks, and other essential
119. RightScale, Inc., RightScale 2018 State of the Cloud Report (2018).
120.
One market observer forecasts global public cloud revenue growing from $153.5 billion in 2017 to $186.4 bil-
lion in 2018, a 21.4% increase. See Gartner, Inc., Press Release – Gartner Forecast Worldwide Public Cloud
Revenue to Grow 21.4 Percent in 2018 (Apr. 12, 2018), available at: https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/
id/3871416.
121.
Cisco estimates, by 2021, 95% of global data center traffic will come from cloud services and applications.
Annual global cloud traffic will reach 19.5 zettabytes (ZB) by the end of 2021, up from 6.0 ZB in 2016. One
ZB is equal to sextillion bytes, or one trillion gigabytes. See Cisco, Cisco Global Cloud Index: Forecast and
Methodology 2016-2021 (2018), available at: https://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/solutions/collateral/service-pro-
vider/global-cloud-index-gci/white-paper-c11-738085.pdf.
Figure 6: T
raditional IT Compared to Cloud Computing
Source: Adapted from U.S. Department of Transportation, Uses of Cloud Technology for Geospatial Applications
Cloud Computing Service Models
Customer managed
Provider managed
Easier to
deploy
Easier to
customize
Enterprise IT
Infrastructure
as a service
Platform
as a service
Software
as a service
Data
Software
Runtime
Operating Systems
Network
Storage
Processors
Data
Software
Runtime
Operating Systems
Network
Storage
Processors
Data
Software
Runtime
Operating Systems
Network
Storage
Processors
Data
Software
Runtime
Operating Systems
Network
Storage
Processors
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computing resources on-demand as needed.
122
In contrast, software-as-a-service (SaaS) allows cli-
ents to easily use a cloud provider’s software that runs on the cloud infrastructure,
123
but tends to
provide users the least exibility or customization. Platform-as-a-service (PaaS) models, which
122. Other service models are sometimes described by industry participants — for example, business-process-as-a-
service and data-as-a-service — but generally these can be seen as variants of SaaS, PaaS, or IaaS models.
123.
NIST further describes “cloud infrastructure” as consisting of the physical systems (for example, server, storage
and network components) and software applications that enable the essential cloud characteristics.
Figure 7: NIST Definition of Cloud Computing
Essential
characteristics
On-Demand Self-
Service
User can unilaterally provision server time, network storage, etc. as
needed without involving service provider.
Broad Network
Access
Capabilities are available over the network and accessed through
common mechanisms (e.g. a Web browser) and devices.
Resource Pooling Physical and virtual resources are shared across a large pool of users,
allowing for dynamic assignment according to users’ demands.
Rapid Elasticity Computing capabilities can be scaled rapidly up or down according
to users’ demands, such that any given user’s demand is met without
interruption.
Measured Service Users access capabilities as a service and pay only for resources
used.
Service
models
Software-as-a-Service
(SaaS)
End-user applications provided as a service only. User cannot manage
or control any underlying cloud infrastructure.*
Platform-as-a-Service
(PaaS)
Application platforms or middleware provided as a service on which
users can build and deploy custom applications using programming
languages, libraries and other tools supported by service provider.
Infrastructure-as-a-
Service (IaaS)
Broad and scalable computing capabilities provided as a service,
including processing, storage, networks, and operating systems,
enabling more control over deployed applications.
Deployment
models
Public Cloud The cloud infrastructure is available for open use by the general
public. It generally is owned by and exists on the premises of the
cloud service provider.
Private Cloud The cloud infrastructure is available for exclusive use by a single
organization. It may exist on or off premises and may be owned by the
organization, a third party, or both.
Community Cloud The cloud infrastructure is available for use only by a specific
community of users that have shared needs or concerns. It may be
owned by one or more of the community users, by a third party, or
some combination.
Hybrid Cloud The cloud exists as a configuration of two or more distinct cloud
infrastructures (public, private, or community) that enables data and
application portability among the separate infrastructures.
* Cloud infrastructure includes network, servers, data, middleware, operating systems, storage, etc.
Source: National Institute of Standards and Technology.
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includes elements of IaaS, provides clients control over the deployment and conguration of soft-
ware applications, but without any control over the underlying cloud hardware/infrastructure.
Adoption in Financial Services
Financial institutions have been adopting cloud computing in part because of the benets it pro-
vides in eectively managing a rm’s IT and computing resources.
124
Many rms have chosen to
deploy private cloud or hybrid cloud structures to gain the benets of cloud while also retaining
greater control of their IT in order to satisfy regulatory or other requirements.
125
For certain uses,
however, nancial institutions are also adopting public cloud, including for tasks and processes
that are susceptible to surges in required computing power. is can include volatile workloads
associated with periodic stress testing, risk modelling and simulations, or other requirements where
computing resources may need to rapidly scale (e.g., payments).
All three types of cloud service models are also being deployed within nancial services. SaaS,
because it tends to be the easiest to deploy, has the most widespread uptake across nancial
institutions.
126
SaaS platforms can easily handle, for example, customer relationship management
and commercial lending software, as well as noncore services such as e-mail, payroll, billing, and
human resources that are amenable to outsourcing. Financial institutions are generally more likely
to utilize IaaS and PaaS service models to run more complex or enterprise-specic core services and
applications — including treasury, payments, retail banking, and regulatory functions.
Overall, the nancial services sector has reportedly been slower to adopt cloud computing than
other industries, though this appears to be changing. Industry research suggests that a signicant
proportion of nancial organizations still support much of their IT infrastructure in-house rather
than through a cloud service provider.
127
Banks, for example, have been slow to migrate core
activities for a number of reasons, including the criticality of such functions and the diculty
of transitioning away from legacy IT systems. However, expectations are for cloud adoption to
increase for the nancial services sector, just as with other sectors of the economy. Some analysts
124. In a May 2017 whitepaper, the Depository Trust & Clearing Corporation noted that the many relative bene-
fits of cloud contributed to its decision to “strategically expand” the range of services and applications it runs
using cloud technology, asserting that cloud computing “has reached the tipping point as the capabilities, resil-
iency and security of services provided by cloud vendors now exceed those of many on-premises data centers.”
See Depository Trust & Clearing Corporation, Moving Financial Market Infrastructure to the Cloud (May 2017),
available at: http://perspectives.dtcc.com/media/pdfs/13161-Cloud-WhitePaper-05-11-17.pdf.
125.
Filip Blazheski, BBVA Research, Cloud Banking or Banking in the Clouds? (Apr. 29, 2016), available at:
https://www.bbvaresearch.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Cloud_Banking_or_Banking_in_the_Clouds1.
pdf.
126. Id.
1 27. In a 2016 study, Peak 10, an IT consultancy (reorganized as Flexential in January 2018), found that 75%
of financial services firms still support technology infrastructure in-house. See Peak 10, Financial Services
and IT Study: Tackling the Digital Transformation (2016), available at: http://www.peak10.com/2016-
financial-services-and-it-study/; Flexential, Financial Services Cloud Adoption: Top Concerns for Making
the Move, blog post (May 2018), available at: https://www.flexential.com/knowledge-center/blog/
financial-services-cloud-adoption-top-concerns-making-move.
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expect large U.S. banks to process the vast majority of their computing needs on cloud platforms
within the next 5-10 years.
128
Issues and Recommendations
Overall Benefits and Potential Risks
Cloud computing has helped increase the speed of innovation by allowing rms to more eciently
and rapidly deploy computing resources to meet business demands and extract usable insights
from large datasets.
Scalability, Speed, and Cost
Cloud computing, by enabling nancial institutions to rapidly scale up or down their use of
cloud applications and infrastructure, provides an ecient way to meet changing demands for
computing power and enhances rms’ abilities to bring new products and capabilities to market.
In a traditional enterprise IT environment, procuring a single new server, for example, could take
months to obtain necessary approvals and cost thousands of dollars. In contrast, cloud computing
can enable rms to acquire the same computing resources in minutes and potentially at a fraction
of the cost.
For new and smaller rms, the economies of scale and aordable cost structure of cloud are key fac-
tors in allowing rms to provide products at a scale, quality, and speed that they might otherwise
be unable to achieve. Large rms, too, benet from using cloud because of the sheer volume or
resources and magnitude of the economies of scale available through large cloud service providers.
Security and Resilience
Large cloud service providers typically have the resources and expertise to invest in and main-
tain state-of-the-art and comprehensive IT security and deploy it on a global basis across their
platforms. Financial institutions, especially small and mid-sized rms, could nd it economically
infeasible to achieve similar levels of security on their own. Moreover, because cloud service provid-
ers can rapidly re-distribute data across geographically diverse storage and processing centers, cloud
environments can potentially enhance rms’ strategies for business continuity and operational
resilience. Nevertheless, to maintain these advantages in terms of security and resilience, cloud
service providers must constantly guard against the risks of being targeted by bad actors.
Enabling Large-Scale Data Storage and Management
Critically, cloud enables the computing resources that are increasingly required by rms that must
manage or utilize vast volumes of data, whether for regulatory purposes or in order to build and
maintain competitive advantages. Firms in the nancial services industry can leverage powerful
machine learning and other data analytics tools to analyze large data sets with greater agility and
eectiveness in line with rms’ business models and strategies. ese tools can potentially be used
to comb through mountains of text-based documents, generate know-your-customer identity
128. Keith Horowitz et al., Citi Research, U.S. Banks: Transformational Changes Unfolding in Journey to the Cloud
(Jan. 10, 2018).
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maps by conducting pattern of life analytics, and convert voice-based input into text and insights
about sentiment and intent.
e growth of cloud services also presents certain challenges, including potentially high transition-
ing costs, security and data privacy considerations, regulatory compliance standards, unrealized
or over-sold cost savings compared to in-house IT management, and connectivity speed. Further,
rms may face high switching costs if they seek to change cloud service providers and may nd
themselves with little pricing power relative to the large providers. However, many of these chal-
lenges can be addressed through appropriate adaptation of cloud computing services, such as
deployment of a private or hybrid cloud, choice of service model, provision of data availability and
resilience measures, and other appropriate risk management of outsourcing contracts.
Regulatory Challenges in Adoption
Regulatory compliance issues continue to present challenges to the broader adoption of and
migration to cloud technology by nancial services rms. Cloud Security Alliance, an industry
group, reported in March 2015, for example, that 71% of respondents to a survey on cloud
adoption by nancial services rms cited “regulatory restrictions” as a key reason, second only
to “data security concerns” that was cited by 100% of respondents, for why they had not yet
adopted cloud technology.
129
Financial services rms face several regulatory challenges related to the adoption of cloud, driven
in large part by a regulatory regime that has yet to be suciently modernized to accommodate
cloud and other innovative technologies. e large number of regulators involved with allowing
the use of cloud in nancial services can present administrative burdens, as well as challenges with
inconsistent requirements. Inconsistencies in regulators’ experience with cloud computing and in
the knowledge base at the examiner level may also be a contributing factor.
130
Regulatory Outsourcing Guidelines
Financial institutions continue to seek certainty from regulators with regard to permissible uses of
public cloud services, and some have indicated that they are hesitant to adopt or migrate to cloud
services due in part to regulatory guidance that is either inconsistent or unclear or not well adapted
for cloud services. For example, rms have expressed uncertainty over whether regulators’ third-
party service provider guidance applies to all or only some cloud deployment models (IaaS, PaaS,
and SaaS). Firms are also uncertain as to whether regulators would accept a broader migration to
129. Cloud Security Alliance, How Cloud is Being Used in the Financial Sector: Survey Report (Mar. 2015), at 10,
available at: https://downloads.cloudsecurityalliance.org/initiatives/surveys/financial-services/Cloud_Adoption_
In_The_Financial_Services_Sector_Survey_March2015_FINAL.pdf.
130. See Securities Industry and Financial Markets Association, Promoting Innovation in Financial Services (Apr. 6,
2018), at 37-38 (submission to Treasury).
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the cloud for core activities, because nancial services rms manage highly sensitive and important
customer data and perform critical functions for the economy.
131
Some of the regulatory guidance may also not be well adapted to cloud. Compliance with regu-
latory guidance that requires nancial institutions to maintain physical access audit rights, for
example, can present challenges, including the ability of nancial institutions to negotiate on-site
access, given a cloud service provider potentially has hundreds or thousands of clients. In the case
of vendor audit requirements, industry and market participants have suggested that U.S. nancial
regulators seek to incorporate independent U.S. audit and certication standards for cloud service
providers, which may provide more ecient, consistent and useful means of assessing such services.
Further, these regulatory issues may have implications for a bank’s relationship with a third party
that itself uses a cloud service provider (i.e., a fourth party). ese “chain outsourcing” issues can
present challenges to banks looking to partner with third parties that use cloud services.
Data Localization
Data stored on the cloud can easily be moved and stored anywhere. Cloud computing is not
naturally geo-centric; rather, data can be compartmentalized, moved, and processed wherever
there is available storage and processing capacity. ese capabilities, however, do not necessarily
impede the ability of U.S. nancial regulators to maintain access to regulated entities’ electronic
books and records for monitoring, surveillance, and other regulatory purposes, including during
a nancial crisis. Nevertheless, some jurisdictions have imposed requirements that mandate that
data be stored or processed within national borders — so-called localization requirements – or
considered such requirements.
132
Data localization can have unintended and harmful eects on
competition, innovation, and economic growth. Concerns about data security and access can be
better addressed through technology, enhanced security controls, contractual arrangements, and
bilateral or multi-jurisdictional agreements.
Outdated Record Keeping Rules
Certain rules prescribe technology requirements that may be out of date or that unnecessarily
hinder adoption of new technologies such as cloud computing. Rule 17a-4 under the Securities
Exchange Act of 1934,
133
for example, requires any electronic media used by broker-dealers to be
131. Ongoing work by industry groups and other public-private sector partnerships can perhaps be instructive in
helping regulators achieve harmonization, within and across jurisdictions, of standards and requirements to pro-
vide greater regulatory certainty. The work of the NIST Cloud Computing Standards Roadmap Working Group,
an industry-academia-regulatory collaboration, is one such effort. See National Institute of Standards and
Technology, NIST Cloud Computing Standards Roadmap, Special Publication 500-291, Version 2 (July 2013),
available at: https://www.nist.gov/sites/default/files/documents/itl/cloud/NIST_SP-500-291_Version-2_2013_
June18_FINAL.pdf.
132.
There are limited examples of such restrictions today in the United States. Section 9.3.15.7 of Internal Revenue
Service Publication 1075 requires that any agency using external information system services to process, store,
or transmit federal tax information “restrict the location of [such systems] to areas within the United States ter-
ritories, embassies, or military installations.” See Internal Revenue Service, Publication 1075 — Tax Information
Security Guidelines for Federal, State and Local Agencies: Safeguards for Protecting Federal Tax Returns and
Return Information (Sept. 2016), at 95, available at: https://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-pdf/p1075.pdf.
133.
17 C.F.R. § 240.17a-4
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stored under the “Write Once, Read Many” or “WORM” format. In eect, the rule compels rms
to record and store static snapshots of data, which can be more costly and potentially less secure
than employing more dynamic data storage capabilities.
Recommendations
Treasury recognizes that cloud computing is a key technology with the potential to allow nancial
institutions to signicantly enhance their ability to innovate, better serve businesses and consum-
ers, and compete both domestically and abroad.
Treasury recommends that federal nancial regulators modernize their requirements and guidance
(e.g., vendor oversight) to better provide for appropriate adoption of new technologies such as cloud
computing, with the aim of reducing unnecessary barriers to the prudent and informed migration
of activities to the cloud. Specic actions U.S. regulators should take include: formally recogniz-
ing independent U.S. audit and security standards that suciently meet regulatory expectations;
addressing outdated record keeping rules like SEC Rule 17a-4; clarifying how audit requirements
may be met; setting clear and appropriately tailored expectations for chain outsourcing; and pro-
viding sta examiners appropriate training to implement agency policy on cloud services.
Treasury further recommends that a cloud and nancial services working group be established
among nancial regulators so that cloud policies can benet from deep and sustained understand-
ing by regulatory authorities. Financial regulators should support potential policies by engaging
key industry stakeholders, including providers, users, and others impacted by cloud services.
Separately, Treasury encourages private industry cloud services providers to proactively formulate
standards appropriate for the United States that might address the potential risks presented by the
growing use of cloud technology.
Financial regulators in the United States should seek to promote the use of cloud technology
within the existing U.S. regulatory framework to help nancial services companies reduce the risks
of noncompliance as well as the costs associated with meeting multiple and sometimes conicting
regulations.
134
Regulators should be wary of imposing data localization requirements and should
instead seek other supervisory or appropriate technological solutions to potential data security,
privacy, availability, and access issues.
134. This should also include development of information and communications technology standards to improve
the interoperability and portability of the cloud. In cloud computing, interoperability refers to the abil-
ity of different systems or components, such as those of a financial services company and a cloud ser-
vices provider, to exchange and use information or to otherwise work together successfully, while portabil-
ity refers to the ability to move and adapt applications and data between systems, including the different
cloud deployment models or the systems of other cloud services providers. Recent E.U. action has sought
to make progress in this area. See European Commission, FinTech Action Plan: For a More Competitive
and Innovative European Financial Sector (Mar. 8, 2018), available at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/resource.
html?uri=cellar:6793c578-22e6-11e8-ac73-01aa75ed71a1.0001.02/DOC_1&format=PDF.
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Big Data, Machine Learning, and Artificial Intelligence in Financial Services
e application of articial intelligence (AI) to a wide array of uses across the economy,
135
includ-
ing nancial services, has greatly increased over the past few years. e concept of AI can vary
meaningfully, but generally is associated with eorts to enable machines or computers to imitate
aspects of human cognitive intelligence, such as vision, hearing, thinking, and decision making.
AI and machine learning algorithms have powered many innovations across the broader economy,
spanning the power of internet search engines, facial-recognition software, and the potential for
autonomous cars.
One of the primary sub-branches of AI development is known as machine learning. Machine learn-
ing generally refers to the ability of software to learn from applicable data sets to “self-improve”
without being explicitly programmed by human programmers. e nature of “improvement” in
the software would depend on the specic machine learning use-case, but could include the quality
of image-recognition, the ability to more accurately and eciently identify money laundering, or
the ability to accurately predict fraud, borrower default, or the most useful web links in response
to a set of search terms. In general, the more data available for the machine learning models, the
better such models will perform because of their ability to learn from the examples in an iterative
process referred to as “training the model.”
Machine learning has been around in some form since at least the 1940s and advanced rapidly
in recent years.
136
It can span several categories: classical machine learning, which would include
supervised learning (focusing on advanced regressions and categorization of data that can be used
to improve predictions) and unsupervised learning (processing input data to understand the dis-
tribution of data to develop, for example, automated customer segments); and deep and reinforce-
ment learning (which is based on neural networks, and may be applied to unstructured data like
images or voice).
137
Several interrelated developments in technology have enabled this environment:
• Dramatic improvements in the availability and aordability of computing capacity
through, for example, cloud computing and the general improvements in computer
hardware.
• An explosion in the abundance of digitized data and its analysis, sometimes referred to as
“big data.” Consider that by 2020, digitized data is forecasted to be generated at a level
that is more than 40 times the level produced in 2009.
138
In 2012, it was estimated that
90% of the digitized data in the world had been generated in just the prior two years.
139
135. Ananad Rao, A Strategist’s Guide to Artificial Intelligence, Strategy + Business (Summer 2017), available at:
https://www.strategy-business.com/article/A-Strategists-Guide-to-Artificial-Intelligence.
136.
See id.
1 37. Marko Kolanovic and Krishnamachari Rajesh, J.P. Morgan Securities LLC, Big Data and AI Strategies: Machine
Learning and Alternative Data Approach to Investing (May 2017).
138.
A.T. Kearney, Big Data and the Creative Destruction of Today’s Business Models (2013), at 2, available at:
https://www.atkearney.com/documents/10192/698536/Big+Data+and+the+Creative+Destruction+of+Today
s+Business+Models.pdf/f05aed38-6c26-431d-8500-d75a2c384919 (discussing Oracle forecast).
139. Id.
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Since 2012, more than a billion more people have been added to the internet (2.5 billion
people connected to the internet in 2012 compared to 3.7 billion people in 2017).
140
• e proliferation of mobile devices and other internet connected devices (e.g., wear-
able devices, household appliances, components in industrial production), sometimes
referred to as the “internet of things.” Globally, there are an estimated 27 billion devices
(including smartphones, tablets, and computers) currently connected to the internet,
with expectations for 125 billion connected devices by the year 2030.
141
ese devices
are enabling new streams of data that are being used by businesses to eectively digitize
many dimensions of interaction in our physical world. Information from cars, phones,
cameras, watches, manufacturing plants, are all being collected and available for analysis.
ese factors are highly interwoven. e sheer magnitude of data that is now available demands
analytical tools, like AI, to capably process and make use of the vast amounts of information, which
is only expected to accelerate in volume, velocity, and variety. In some use-cases, for example,
manual processes are simply unusable given the amount of data that exists. Cloud service provid-
ers, recognizing that many cloud-service users are also in need of adequate analytical tools, are
providing various services designed to enable users to deploy an array of AI capabilities.
142
Figure 8: Global Investment T
rends in
Artificial Intelligence
Source: CBInsights, Top AI Trends to Watch in 2018, at 25.
$15.2
$6.3
$4.6
$3.5
$1.7
1,349
310
482
635
888
Disclosed funding
($ billions)
Disclosed deals
2013 20152014 20172016
Deployment in Financial Services
Investment in AI and machine learning has been
accelerating over the past several years with a
large share of such investment focused on rms
looking to deploy AI and machine learning in
nancial services. Adoption of AI within nancial
services is driven by a number of factors such as
the large and growing availability of data within
nancial services, including through third-party
consumer nancial data aggregators discussed
elsewhere in this report, and the expectation that
the use of machine learning and AI will increas-
ingly be a driver of competitive advantage for
rms through both improving rm’s eciency
by reducing costs and enhancing the quality
of nancial services products demanded by
140. Id.
141. IHS Markit, The Internet of Things: A Movement, Not a Market (Oct. 2017), at 2, available at: https://cdn.ihs.
com/www/pdf/IoT_ebook.pdf. For projections that do not consider computers and phones at: Gartner, Inc.,
Press Release – Gartner Says 8.4 Billion Connected “Things” Will be in Use in 2017, up 31 Percent from
2016 (Feb. 7, 2017), available at: https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3598917.
142.
See, e.g., Amazon Web Services¸ Amazon Machine Learning Documentation, available at: https://aws.amazon.
com/documentation/machine-learning/; Microsoft Azure, Azure AI: Artificial Intelligence Productivity for Virtually
Every Developer and Scenario, available at: https://azure.microsoft.com/en-us/overview/ai-platform/; Google
Cloud¸ Cloud Machine Learning Engine, available at: https://cloud.google.com/ml-engine/; and IBM, AI, Machine
Learning and Cognitive Computing Services, available at: https://www.ibm.com/services/artificial-intelligence.
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customers.
143
Global banks, for example, report they expect application of these tools to deliver
long-term cost eciencies, risk management benets, and revenue expansion opportunities.
144
An extensive array of AI and machine learning use-cases are being considered and deployed within
nancial services, spanning the front-end (customer-facing) to back-oce operations of a broad-
set of nancial services activities. ese use-cases include:
145
Risk mitigation and surveillance: Financial institutions and regulators, for example, are using
machine learning-enabled software to help conduct surveillance of trader behavior by combining
transaction data and unstructured text (e.g., e-mail, messaging) and voice data to help identify sus-
picious trading activities.
146
Machine learning may additionally be used to help reduce fraud and
conduct surveillance for money-laundering and other illicit nancing risks. Financial regulators are
also beginning to employ machine learning to enhance their own analysis and understanding of
economic and nancial markets.
147
Enhancing investment analysis, trading strategies, and operations: Machine learning-based soft-
ware can also be used to augment human investment analysis in a variety of ways. One rm’s
product allows users to ask simple text questions (like an internet search engine) to generate instant
correlation analyses between a broad span of potential market-moving data and nancial asset
prices, which could be used to greatly accelerate investment analyses.
148
Other use-cases include
optimizing trade execution
149
and portfolio management and trading strategies at quantitative-
oriented asset managers and hedge funds.
150
143. PricewaterhouseCoopers, Top Financial Services Issues of 2018 (Dec. 2017), available at: https://www.pwc.
se/sv/pdf-reports/finansiell-sektor/top-financial-services-issues-of-2018.pdf (discussion of artificial intelligence
and digital labor).
144. Laura Noonan, AI in Banking: The Reality Behind the Hype, Financial Times (April 12, 2018) (“Noonan AI in
Banking”).
145.
For further examples, see Lex Sokolin, Autonomous NEXT, #Machine Intelligence & Augmented Finance:
How Artificial Intelligence Creates $1 Trillion of Change in the Front, Middle and Back Office of the Financial
Services Industry (Apr. 2018); Michael Chui et al., McKinsey Global Institute, Notes from the AI Frontier:
Applications and Value of Deep Learning (Apr. 2018), available at: https://www.mckinsey.com/featured-
insights/artificial-intelligence/notes-from-the-ai-frontier-applications-and-value-of-deep-learning; Darrell West
and John R. Allen, Brookings Institution, How Artificial Intelligence is Transforming the World (Apr. 2018), avail-
able at: https://www.brookings.edu/research/how-artificial-intelligence-is-transforming-the-world/.
146.
Tony Sio, Nasdaq, Changing the Game: Artificial Intelligence in Market Surveillance, blog post (Apr. 2017),
available at: http://business.nasdaq.com/marketinsite/2017/Changing-The-Game-Artificial-Intelligence-In-
Market-Surveillance.html.
1 47. See, e.g., Andrew Haldane, Bank of England, Will Big Data Keep Its Promise? (Apr. 2018), available at: https://
www.bankofengland.co.uk/-/media/boe/files/speech/2018/will-big-data-keep-its-promise-speech-by-andy-hal-
dane.pdf.
148. See Antoin Gara, Wall Street Tech Spree: With Kensho Acquisition S&P Global Makes Largest A.I. Deal
In History, Forbes (Mar. 6, 2018), available at: https://www.forbes.com/sites/antoinegara/2018/03/06/
wall-street-tech-spree-with-kensho-acquisition-sp-global-makes-largest-a-i-deal-in-history/.
149. See Laura Noonan, JPMorgan Develops Robot to Execute Trades, Financial Times (July 31, 2017)
150.
See Financial Stability Board, Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning in Financial Services: Market
Developments and Financial Stability Implications (Nov. 1, 2017), at 18, available at: http://www.fsb.org/wp-
content/uploads/P011117.pdf.
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Customer-interface: Many nancial services rms are employing chat-bots, which are digital
customer-facing assistants that are powered by machine learning software that takes advantage
of advancements in natural-language processing. For example, customers can text message with a
bank through a messaging platform (and voice as well) in a conversational style to engage in certain
account services. While current services are fairly limited in U.S. applications, expectations are that
these systems will evolve to enable a much richer set of customer-facing services.
151
Underwriting decisions: Firms have begun to employ machine learning based models to assist
in underwriting decisions for purposes of extending credit to consumers and small businesses.
Insurance rms are also using these techniques to price and market insurance products.
While many of these eorts remain in the early stages of testing and deployment, several use-cases
appear poised for more wide-spread adoption. Within the banking industry, for example, large
percentages of U.S. banks report either current or planned AI deployment within the next 18
months across the following use-cases: more than 60% in biometrics, about 60% in fraud &
security detection, about 55% in chatbots or robo-advisers; and about 35% in voice assistants.
152
Issues and Recommendations
e expected rapid adoption of AI and machine learning within the nancial services industry, and
the economy more broadly, raises a number of important policy considerations.
Benefits and Risks from Competition in AI and Big Data
Firms expect that the eective use of AI, machine learning and big data analysis will be a key source
of competitive advantage, which is spurring investment and competition.
153
Smaller rms may now
be able to compete providing new algorithms, in part because barriers to develop such software
have declined with the availability of aordable data processing capacity. Traditional nancial ser-
vices players may be able to leverage their product expertise while technology rms may be able to
leverage their experience and deployment in AI in other contexts. Investment managers may look
to employ new data sources or tools to deliver improved relative investment performance.
154
is
multi-faceted competition can provide benets to end-users and consumers of nancial services
through more aordable and higher-quality products that are more personalized and provided
with greater overall convenience. e development of AI is expected to yield substantial benets
151. Brian Patrick Eha, This is How Financial Services Chatbots are Going to Evolve,
American Banker (May 26, 2017), available at: https://www.americanbanker.com/news/
this-is-how-financial-services-chatbots-are-going-to-evolve.
152. See Citigroup Global Markets Inc., Bank of the Future: The ABCs of Digital Disruption in Finance (Mar. 2018)
(citing Business Insider Intelligence, AI in Banking and Payments (Feb. 2018)).
153.
PricewaterhouseCoopers, Artificial Intelligence and Digital Labor in Financial Services, available at: https://
www.pwc.com/us/en/industries/financial-services/research-institute/top-issues/artificial-intelligence.html (last
accessed June 1, 2018) (noting that about half (52%) of those in the financial services industry said they are
currently making “substantial investments” in AI and that almost three out of four (72%) business decision mak-
ers expect that AI will be the business advantage of the future).
154.
Tammer Kamel, Quandl, Alternative Data – The Trend in Financial Data, blog post (Apr. 12, 2016), available
at: https://blog.quandl.com/alternative-data (discussing why alternative data can provide a source of potential
‘alpha’ for investment professionals).
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to the broader economy and nancial services.
155
PricewaterhouseCoopers estimated that by 2030,
AI technologies could increase North American gross domestic product (GDP) by $3.7 trillion
and global GDP in $15.7 trillion.
156
Within the nancial services sector, large banks report that AI
could help cut costs and boost returns.
157
e strength and nature of the competitive advantages created by advances in AI could also
harm the operations of ecient and competitive markets if consumers’ ability to make informed
decisions is constrained by high concentrations amongst market providers. Some analysts cau-
tion that the path of AI-based nancial services technology may be similar to the path of other
technology-based platforms that have trended toward high-levels of market concentration (e.g., in
internet search and messaging).
158
An AI/machine learning model’s performance improves through
an abundance of data. Models that have a large market presence, therefore, have a built-in self-
reinforcing advantage as their gains in market share improve the model’s performance, which could
in turn further their gain in market share.
Legal and Employment Challenges
As the implications of the wide-spread adoption of AI become clearer, responsible parties are
sounding alarms on potential complex downside risks.
Detecting versus promoting fraud: Even as AI and machine learning tools are being used to
help detect fraud through risk models and image-recognition software, other applications of this
technology could be used to circumvent fraud detection capabilities. For example, the digital
rendering of fraudulent videos and audios may become indistinguishable from actual video and
audio, which would raise signicant challenges to authentication and verication functions
within nancial services.
159
Compatibility of legal and algorithmic decision-making: One advantage of machine learning and
AI methods is that they can potentially help avoid discrimination based on human interactions
by ceding aspects of such decision making to an algorithm. However, these methods may also risk
discrimination through the potential to compound existing biases, through training models with
biased data and the identication of spurious correlations.
160
One consideration will be to ensure
that decisions based upon an algorithm do not rely on incorrect, or perhaps even fraudulent, data,
155. McKinsey Global Institute, Artificial Intelligence: The Next Digital Frontier (June 2017), available at: https://
www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/mckinsey-analytics/our-insights/how-artificial-intelligence-can-
deliver-real-value-to-companies (discussing the potential value of AI in other sectors of the economy).
156. PricewaterhouseCoopers, Sizing the Prize: What’s the Real Value of AI for Your Business and How Can You
Capitalise? (2017), available at: https://www.pwc.com/gx/en/issues/analytics/assets/pwc-ai-analysis-sizing-
the-prize-report.pdf.
1 57. See Noonan AI in Banking.
158. See, e.g., Sokolin.
159. Penny Crosman, Bank of America, Harvard Form Group to Promote Responsible AI,
American Banker (Apr. 10, 2018), available at: https://www.americanbanker.com/news/
bank-of-america-harvard-form-group-to-promote-responsible-ai.
160. See, e.g., Cathy O’Neil, Weapons of Math Destruction: How Big Data Increases Inequality and Threatens
Democracy (2016); Mikella Hurley and Julius Adebayo, Credit Scoring in the Era of Big Data, 18 Yale J. L. &
Tech. 148 (2016).
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or alternatively base decisions on proxies for illegal discrimination. Another key consideration is
the appropriate role of humans in a decision-making process informed by algorithms that may be
unable to provide an adequate explanation of its decision-making process nor self-correct for biases
built into the data or model design.
161
Employment risks and opportunities: Financial services rms expect the widespread adoption of
AI and robotic automation processes to create signicant demand for employees with applicable
skills in AI methods, advanced mathematics, software engineering, and data science. However,
executives also expect the application of these technologies to result in potentially signicant job
losses across the industry.
162
Data Privacy
e deployment of AI and machine learning models could result in a higher overall quality of nan-
cial services products being delivered to consumers. At the same time, the ubiquity and continuous
owing nature of data required to train AI and machine learning models can raise various data
protection and privacy concerns. As data becomes ubiquitous, consumer’s nancial and nonnancial
data may be increasingly shared without their understanding and informed consent. Moreover, the
power of AI and machine learning tools may expand the universe of data that may be considered
sensitive as such models can become highly procient in identifying users individually.
163
Regulatory Challenges Related to Transparency, Auditability, and Accountability
In the lending context and many other nancial services use-cases, the underlying complexity of
AI and machine learning-based models (often referred to as “black boxes”) raises challenges in the
transparency and auditing of these models. Many U.S. laws or regulations have been designed
around a baseline expectation of auditability and transparency that may not be easily met by
these models. As these types of models are deployed in increasingly high-value decision-making
use-cases, such as determining who gets access to credit or how to manage an investment portfolio,
questions regarding how to maintain accountability become fundamental.
With respect to lending, for example, U.S. rules require that a creditor provide a notication when
a borrower has been denied credit.
164
In light of the increasing complexity of machine learning, it
can be challenging to express the underpinnings of these analytical insights to rms, borrowers,
and regulators.
165
161. See Nick Bostrom and Yudkowsky Eliezer, The Ethics of Artificial Intelligence, The Cambridge Handbook of
Artificial Intelligence (Keith Frankish and William M. Ramsey, eds., 2014).
162.
See Noonan AI in Banking.
163. The Future: The Sunny and Dark Side of AI, The Economist (Mar. 31, 2018).
164.
Federal Trade Commission, Big Data: A Tool for Inclusion or Exclusion? (Jan. 2016), at 14, available at:
https://www.ftc.gov/system/files/documents/reports/big-data-tool-inclusion-or-exclusion-understanding-
issues/160106big-data-rpt.pdf.
165. Eva Wolkowitz and Sarah Parker, Center for Financial Services Innovation, Big Data, Big Potential: Harnessing
Data Technology for the Underserved Market (2015), available at: https://s3.amazonaws.com/cfsi-innovation-
files/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/13062352/Big-Data-Big-Potential-Harnessing-Data-Technology-for-the-
Underserved-Market.pdf.
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In the investment management context, for example, machine learning-based algorithms and
alternative data sources are currently being deployed in nancial markets by a subset of quanti-
tative-oriented funds, with the expectation of increased adoption by other such funds. While the
application of these tools could yield valuable investment insights for some investment portfolios
and activities, the opacity of the models may raise challenges for supervisors and users of these
models to monitor risk and understand how they may interact with one another, particularly in
times of broad market stress.
166
Recommendations
Treasury recognizes that the increased application of developing AI and machine learning technolo-
gies can provide signicant benets by improving the quality of nancial services for households
and businesses and supplying a source of competitive strength for U.S. rms. Regulators, therefore,
should not impose unnecessary burdens or obstacles to the use of AI and machine learning and
should provide greater regulatory clarity that would enable further testing and responsible deploy-
ment of these technologies by regulated nancial services companies as the technologies develop.
e Administration has made harnessing AI and high-performance computing, including machine
learning and autonomous systems, a federal research and development priority.
167
In May 2018, the
White House hosted a summit of more than 100 senior government ocials, technical experts, and
business leaders to discuss policies to support continued American innovation in AI across industrial
sectors.
168
Participants at the summit, including Treasury, recognized the importance of enabling
high-impact, research and development eorts to advance AI. Treasury recommends that nancial
regulators engage with the Select Committee on Articial Intelligence,
169
in addition to pursuing
other strategic interagency AI eorts. Engagement in such eorts should emphasize use-cases and
applications in the nancial services industry, including removing regulatory barriers to deployment
of AI-powered technologies. Other potential issues to consider as part of that engagement include:
an appropriate emphasis on human primacy in decision making for higher-value use-cases relative to
lower-value use-cases, the importance of cost-benet assessments for regulatory actions, preparation
of the work force for the trend toward digital labor, transparency of model use for consumers, robust-
ness against manipulation (e.g., in market contexts), and accountability of human beings.
166. See Financial Stability Board, Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning in Financial Services: Market
Developments and Financial Stability Implications (Nov. 1, 2017), at 18 and 33-34, available at: http://www.
fsb.org/wp-content/uploads/P011117.pdf.
1 67. Office of Management and Budget, Fiscal Year 2019 Analytical Perspectives, at 236, available at: https://www.
whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/spec-fy2019.pdf.
168.
The White House Office of Science and Technology Policy, Summary of the 2018 White House Summit on
Artificial Intelligence for American Industry (May 10, 2018), available at: https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-con-
tent/uploads/2018/05/Summary-Report-of-White-House-AI-Summit.pdf.
169. The Select Committee is chaired by the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy, the National
Science Foundation (NSF), and the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). Senior fed-
eral officials participating on the Select Committee include the Undersecretary of Commerce for Standards
and Technology, the Undersecretary of Defense for Research and Engineering, the Undersecretary of Energy
for Science, the Director of NSF, and the Directors of DARPA and the Intelligence Advanced Research
Projects Activity as well as representatives from the National Security Council, the Office of the Federal Chief
Information Officer, and the Office of Management and Budget.
Aligning the Regulatory Framework
to Promote Innovation
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63
Overview
Technological innovation in the provision of nancial services is creating opportunities to serve
customers and markets more eciently. However, the regulatory framework, for banks and
nonbanks alike, must evolve to enable innovation on an orderly and sustainable basis. Nonbank
nancial service providers generally operate within a largely state-based regulatory regime requir-
ing compliance with a disparate set of standards across individual states and territories that can be
cumbersome and produce conicting guidance for entities operating on a national basis.
170
Innovation will best ourish if the current federal and state regulatory models evolve to keep pace
with technological change. is evolution could include eorts by the states to harmonize their
regulatory and supervision regimes; the Oce of the Comptroller of the Currency’s (OCC) special
purpose national bank charter; and encouragement of the bank partnership model with ntech rms.
As nancial services continue to be shaped by new technologies and business models, the tradi-
tional distinctions between permitted banking activities and other information-intensive digital
activities are being tested, which will require exible and eective regulatory approaches. Existing
bank regulations and supervision of a broad spectrum of third-party technology service providers
and relationships require additional attention to enable innovative partnerships and provide for
more streamlined and tailored oversight.
Challenges with State and Federal Regulatory
Frameworks
State Oversight and Harmonization Challenges
State laws and regulations currently provide the primary regulatory framework for many types of
nonbank nancial services rms, including rms deploying new and innovative technologies and
products. State banking departments and nancial regulatory agencies oversee various types of
nonbank rms and activities, including: consumer nance companies, money services businesses
(MSBs), debt collection businesses, and mortgage loan originators. State nancial regulators’
authorities over these nonbank rms can include rm licensing requirements; safety and soundness
regulation, including permissible investments and required reserves; product limitations; interest
rate limits; examinations; and enforcement authority for violation of state and federal laws.
Lending and Servicing
State nancial regulators regulate nonbank consumer lenders primarily for purposes of consumer
protection. Nonbank lenders that operate in multiple states must acquire lending or credit licenses
for each applicable state. As a result, geographic expansion can only generally be accomplished
through repeated licensing eorts, each with a state-specic regulatory regime. States’ lending
170. With the passage of Dodd-Frank, the Bureau of Consumer Financial Protection was granted expansive federal
regulatory powers over nonbank financial services companies, but Dodd-Frank did not preempt state laws that
provided greater consumer protection. See 12 U.S.C. § 5551(a).
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64
license applications often require submission of a business plan and nancial statements, credit
reports and ngerprints from the rm’s ocers, and a surety bond. State regulators oversee lend-
ers active across a broad set of consumer lending segments, including short-term, small dollar,
mortgage, auto, and other unsecured credit.
State-specic requirements would benet from additional harmonization. For example, some states
may require a physical oce presence,
171
some require broker licenses or licenses for commercial
loans,
172
and others set dierent maximum loan interest rate requirements.
173
Dierences in usury
limits imposed by states also materially impact which products are available to consumers.
Payments and Money Transmission
Money transmitters are generally nonbank rms that transfer or receive funds on behalf of indi-
viduals. As with nonbank credit providers, individual states each license and supervise money
transmitters with the general goals of maintaining the safety and soundness of these businesses,
ensuring nancial integrity, protecting consumers, and preventing ownership of money transmit-
ters for illicit purposes (e.g., money laundering or fraud). e denition of money transmission
can vary signicantly by state (as can exceptions from the denition), posing operational challenges
and potentially chilling economically benecial money transmission activity –— particularly
innovative, technology-based money transmission. If a statutory exception does not apply, money
transmitter licenses are required for numerous activities oered by nonbanking rms beyond just
remittance services, to rms that could include online payment, digital wallet services, and bill
payment services.
174
As a general matter, any rm with a nationwide footprint (and especially those that have only a
digital presence) will require a license in, and be subject to examination by, every state in which it
operates. ere are currently 49 states plus the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico that impose
some sort of licensing requirement in order to engage in the business of money transmission or
money services. As with lending and credit, money transmitter licensing requirements often vary
by state, but generally include requirements to submit credit reports, business plans, and nancial
statements; and a requirement to maintain a surety bond to cover losses that might occur. Some
states may also ask for information regarding policies, procedures, and internal controls. ese
171. Arizona, Hawaii, Missouri, North Carolina, Nevada, South Carolina, and Texas require a physical office to obtain
a license as a mortgage lender or broker.
172
. California, New York, and Vermont require a license for commercial lenders, while most states only require a
license for consumer loans.
173.
See Loanback.com, Usury Laws by State (Mar. 2, 2011), available at: http://www.loanback.com/category/
usury-laws-by-state.
174
. Money transmitters are defined for federal purposes by FinCEN for purposes of the Bank Secrecy Act, 31
U.S.C. § 5311 et seq. Money transmitters generally include any person that provides money transmission ser-
vices or is engaged in the transfer of funds. The term money transmission services means the acceptance of
currency, funds, or other value that substitutes for currency and transmission to another location or person by
any means. Money transmitters are considered to be a type of “money services business” (MSB). MSBs are
certain nonbank financial institutions that do business in any of the following capacities: money transmitter;
currency dealer or exchange, check casher, provider or seller of prepaid access, issuer or seller of traveler’s
checks, or money orders; U.S. postal service. See 31 C.F.R. § 1010.100(ff).
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requirements do not apply to banks because state money transmitter statutes generally expressly
carve them out.
175
Focus Areas for Improvement in the Regulatory Framework
Nonbank rms have raised concerns with the lack of regulatory harmonization among the current
state-based regimes, particularly with respect to the provision of credit and money transmission
activities. As innovation allows rms to more easily serve customers across a broad national mar-
ket, these concerns are becoming more acute. e lack of harmonization could also perpetuate a
disparate regulatory regime between nonbanks and banks otherwise competing in similar product
and geographic markets.
176
State licensing processes can create ineciencies, including requirements for ngerprinting in
multiple states (although this has been improved through coordination) and requests from states
for the nancial statements of the multinational parent company’s individual board members. e
applications for licenses require similar but suciently distinct information that forces rms to
materially revise each application for each state.
Compliance across this fragmented state-regulatory landscape can be costly for rms (some rms
report that all-in licensing costs range from $1 million to $30 million), separate and beyond the
time lost from such eorts, which can result in forgone business opportunities.
177
In addition to
these up-front costs, nonbank rms must actively monitor regulatory requirements across all the
states in which they operate, pay fees to the applicable state regulators, and deploy signicant
resources to accommodate multiple state examinations, which can result in as many as 30 dierent
state regulators per year examining a rm.
178
ese cumulative challenges of operating in the state-
based regulatory regime result not only in excessive regulatory costs, but also constrain the ability
of nonbank rms, including start-ups, to innovate and to scale nationally.
Banks and credit unions also face regulatory challenges that may impede innovation. In contrast to
the largely state-based regime facing nonbank nancial services providers, banks and credit unions
operate within a largely federal regulatory regime, which provides for greater levels of uniformity,
and accordingly eciency, on some dimensions. Yet banks face a substantially dierent regula-
tory regime, which is heavily focused on bank-specic activities. ese regulations are structured
to ensure the safety and soundness of the bank or credit union, and may include capital and
liquidity standards, deposit insurance requirements, and limitations on permissible activities. is
regulatory framework exists for multiple reasons, including the need to protect taxpayers because
of banks’ access to Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) insurance and the Federal
Reserve’s discount window. Additionally, banks and credit unions serve as the back-up source of
175. Each state may have different statutory language. See, e.g., National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform
State Laws, Uniform Money Services Act (Feb. 25, 2005), at § 103(4), available at: http://www.uniformlaws.
org/shared/docs/money%20services/umsa_final04.pdf.
176.
For a discussion of how state-based regulation can result in inefficiency, unlevel competition, and differences
in the availability of financial services across states, see Brian Knight, Federalism and Federalization on the
Fintech Frontier, 20 Vanderbilt J. of Ent. & Tech. Law 129 (2017), at 185-198.
177
. GAO Fintech Report, at 45.
178
. Id.
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66
liquidity for other nancial rms, act as critical (though not exclusive) transmission vehicles for
monetary policy, and have exclusive access to Fedwire and other payment systems.
e cumulative impact of these regulations, while critical for achieving public policy goals such
as safety and soundness, can impede innovation at banking organizations. ese limitations may
impede the ability of banks and credit unions to partner with nonbank nancial institutions,
develop new platforms within the organization, or oer new and innovative services to customers.
Modernizing Regulatory Frameworks for National
Activities
Improving the Clarity and Efficiency of Our Regulatory Operating Models
Treasury has identied several principles for updating the regulatory operating models available for
rms in our nancial services ecosystem. First, modernization needs to focus on producing ecient
regulation to enable dynamic innovation. Second, any solution must provide sucient exibility
to recognize the diversity of the scale, maturity, and activities of rms. Finally, any solution should
recognize the benets of both federal and state based-approaches to nancial services oversight.
e diversity of U.S. nancial services rms requires that any regulatory solution allow for recogni-
tion of a broad spectrum of business models. Some rms may be ready to absorb the costs of regu-
lation that attach to a federally insured depository institution, whether through federally chartered
banks or state-chartered banks, including traditional banks and industrial loan companies. Other
rms may prefer having a primary federal regulatory regime but without the acceptance of feder-
ally insured deposits, such as through the OCC’s proposed special purpose national bank charter.
Still other rms may desire to partner with an existing bank, rather than pursue a banking charter
themselves. Finally, rms may have business models that do not require national approaches and
may prefer therefore to maintain a predominantly state-based system of regulation. Primary drivers
of these decisions may include the type of activity engaged in, the maturity of the rm, and busi-
ness strategies and objectives.
e United States has a long and complex history of state and federal regulation in nancial ser-
vices. e U.S. banking system began through state charters. In many ways, the state-based system
acts as a laboratory of innovation for rms, which should be preserved. In fact, the state model has
allowed for numerous nonbank rms to build a local product in a state, and then subsequently
expand as the product gained broader market appeal. State regulators also have greater proximity
to their constituents and can be more responsive to the needs and preferences of local consumers
than regulators who do not have a local presence. Some of these advantages of local geographic
experimentation and local government responsiveness should be preserved, particularly for rms
that prefer the state-based approach.
Federal oversight would likely play a more prominent role in the regulation of ntech rms if
these rms elect to pursue a banking charter. Federal banking regulations should be appropriately
tailored to allow rms to provide nancial services to drive economic growth while ensuring appro-
priate oversight. ought should also be given to the appropriate regulatory structure taking into
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consideration organizational structure, services provided, risk prole, and the need to promote fair
competition between dierent types of organizations providing similar services.
A Tailored Regulatory Solution
Treasury supports several specic regulatory approaches that would provide greater clarity and
exibility in the regulatory operating model for rms looking to provide nancial services. Taken
together, these approaches balance the key requirements for modernizing the regulatory operating
model for U.S. rms. ese approaches include:
• State Harmonization. An acceleration in state regulators’ and legislatures’ eorts to
harmonize the existing patchwork of state licensing and oversight of nonbank nancial
services companies,
• Bank Charters. e OCC should move forward with thoughtful consideration of appli-
cations for special purpose national bank charters,
• Partnerships. Enabling further partnerships between banking organizations and ntech
companies, and
• Bank Innovation. Updating existing bank regulations to enable innovations com-
mensurate with the rapid changes in how banks are partnering with and investing in
ntech and technology rms and how banks are themselves becoming increasingly like
technology rms.
Issues and Recommendations
State Harmonization Efforts
State regulators have enhanced the regulatory eciency of state regulation over the years. In the
early 1980s, state regulators participated in a nationwide licensing system for the securities industry,
known as the Central Registration Depository.
179
In the years leading up to nationwide banking,
states were already working to move toward a more harmonized system. By 1991, for example, 33
states permitted nationwide banking and 13 permitted regional banking.
180
Past and current eorts to promote greater state harmonization have spanned eorts to address
dierences across state laws, for example with regard to licensing and supervision.
Model Law Adoption
One approach for state harmonization involves the drafting of a model law that state legislatures
would then enact and implement in each respective state. is would ensure that each state has
similar laws and requirements for each type of rm or activity. For example, in July 2017, the
Uniform Law Commission approved and recommended for adoption by all states a Uniform
179. Conference of State Bank Supervisors, Letter to Treasury on NonBank and Innovation Report (Apr. 9, 2018),
available at: https://www.csbs.org/letter-treasury-non-bank-and-innovation-report (“CSBS Letter”).
180.
See U.S. Department of the Treasury, Modernizing the Financial System: Recommendations for Safer, More
Competitive Banks (Feb. 5, 1991) at 7, available at: http://3197d6d14b5f19f2f440-5e13d29c4c016cf-
96cbbfd197c579b45.r81.cf1.rackcdn.com/collection/papers/1990/1991_0205_TreasuryBanks.pdf.
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Regulation of Virtual Currency Businesses Act.
181
e eectiveness of the model law approach
turns on widespread adoption by the states. Previous eorts have met with mixed results. For
example, the Commission’s Money Services Act of 2000 has to date been enacted by only 10 states
(plus Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands).
182
Nationwide Multistate Licensing System
In more recent years, state regulators have been focused on developing greater cooperative
approaches for the supervision of nonbank nancial services companies. One of the primary eorts
of state regulators to achieve such enhanced cooperation has been the Nationwide Multistate
Licensing System (NMLS), which is a technology platform that functions as a system of record
for the licensing activities (application, renew, and surrender) of 62 state or territorial government
agencies.
183
e NMLS is used by state regulators to reduce duplicative regulatory requirements,
promote greater information sharing and coordination, and maintain consumer protections and
the strength and resilience of regulated rms.
e NMLS began with a focus on the mortgage industry. e NMLS began operations in January
2008 and was formed by the Conference of State Bank Supervisors (CSBS) and the American
Association of Residential Mortgage Regulators. At that time, the NMLS was originally the
Nationwide Mortgage Licensing System and was primarily designed for the mortgage industry.
e NMLS began in 2005 as a voluntary system used by seven state agencies and then expanded to
50 when it went live in 2008. Congress subsequently enacted the Secure and Fair Enforcement for
Mortgage Licensing Act (SAFE Act), which established a registration requirement and minimum
licensing requirements for mortgage loan originators and mortgage reporting.
184
e CSBS and state regulators further built out the NMLS framework beyond the mortgage
industry. For example, the CSBS and state regulators have expanded the scope of industries cov-
ered within the NMLS framework beyond even money transmitters, to also include consumer
nance and debt collection. Some success has also been found using NMLS to manage licensing.
As of year-end 2017, 38 states were using NMLS to manage their MSB licenses.
185
However, fewer
state regulators participate in these other licensed activities than for the mortgage sector.
186
Beyond
the scope of industries, NMLS has also enabled greater access to its data through the launch of a
publicly available consumer access website in 2010 and through the sale of NMLS data to busi-
nesses that, in turn, sell data and loan origination products to mortgage market participants.
181. National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws, Uniform Regulation of Virtual Currency
Businesses Act (July 2017), available at: http://www.uniformlaws.org/shared/docs/regulation%20of%20vir-
tual%20currencies/2017AM_URVCBA_AsApproved.pdf.
182. See http://uniformlaws.org/Act.aspx?title=Money%20Services%20Act (website of the National Conference of
Commissioners on Uniform State Laws tracking the status of enactment as of June 1, 2018).
183.
State Regulatory Registry LLC, 2017 Annual Report, available at: https://nationwidelicensingsystem.org/
NMLS%20Document%20Library/2017%20SRR%20Annual%20Report.pdf (“NMLS 2017 Annual Report”).
184
. The SAFE Act was enacted as Title V of the Housing and Economic Recovery Act of 2008, Pub. L. No. 110-
289, and codified at 12 U.S.C. §§ 5101-5116.
185.
National Multistate Licensing System, Money Services Businesses Fact Sheet (Dec. 31, 2017), available at:
https://nationwidelicensingsystem.org/about/Reports/2017Q4%20MSB%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf.
186.
NMLS 2017 Annual Report.
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Eorts to Streamline Examinations
One example of how states have sought to harmonize examinations has been their approach to money
transmitters and MSBs. Multi-state examinations started in earnest after the Money Transmitters
Regulators Association (an association of state money transmitter regulators) executed a cooperative
agreement in 2002 and an examination protocol in 2010
187
and FinCEN issued an MSB examination
manual for the Bank Secrecy Act in 2008. As of March 2018, 48 states; Washington, D.C.; Puerto
Rico; Guam; and the Virgin Islands have signed the Money Transmitter Regulators Association
agreements.
188
e agreements provide for a taskforce that helps to coordinate the joint exams and
determine which state will lead a joint exam. Joint exams generally include fewer than 10 states, and
states that are not part of a joint exam will come in to do individual exams (or be a part of a dier-
ent joint exam). State examiners generally jointly examine for common components such as Bank
Secrecy Act/anti-money laundering, information technology, and corporate governance; there is a
separate section of the exam for specic state law issues.
Vision 2020 Commitment and Passporting
State regulators have launched a multi-step eort to develop a 50-state licensing and supervisory
system by 2020, known as “Vision 2020.” Vision 2020 is largely a response to the various state
regulatory harmonization challenges raised by rms regarding the current state-based regulatory
regime for nonbank nancial companies. e core components of this eort include:
189
• Establishing a Fintech Industry Advisory Panel that would be a vehicle to provide state
regulators important insight on the Vision 2020 and related eorts to improve state
regulation.
• Re-designing the existing NMLS platform through further automation and enhanced
data and analytical tools.
• Harmonizing multistate supervision processes through adoption of best practices and,
critically, the development of a comprehensive state examination system that will allow
state regulators to share various pieces of information including: exam schedules, ratings,
supervisory concerns, and reports of examination. is system is tentatively scheduled to
go live in the spring or summer of 2019.
190
For money-transmission oversight, according
to the CSBS, “If one state reviews key elements of state licensing for a money transmitter
— IT, cybersecurity, business plan, or background check
191
— then other participating
1 87. Conference of State Bank Supervisors and Money Transmitters Regulators Association, The State of
State Money Service Businesses Regulation and Supervision (May 2016), at 11, available at: https://
www.csbs.org/sites/default/files/2017-11/State%20of%20State%20MSB%20Regulation%20and%20
Supervision%202.pdf.
188.
CSBS Letter, at 15.
189.
Conference of State Bank Supervisors, Vision 2020 for Fintech and Non-Bank Regulation (Jan. 7, 2018), avail-
able at: https://www.csbs.org/vision2020.
190
. See NMLS 2017 Annual Report, at 15.
191
. This effort would also include examinations for compliance with the federal Bank Secrecy Act.
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states agree to accept the ndings.”
192
Seven states have initially signed on to this agree-
ment as an initial pilot program.
193
• Other eorts to, for example, assist state banking departments and promote greater
industry awareness.
One solution that could be accomplished through the Vision 2020 process is the idea of “pass-
porting” and reciprocity of state licenses. Such a solution would involve the states harmonizing
licensure and supervision laws and regulations, creating a system whereby a licensee in one state
could have their home state’s license accepted, or passported, to other states within the reciprocity
pact.
194
Passporting represents a path through which states could eectuate a system of licensing
that is conducive to a national business model while still retaining oversight at the state level.
Recommendations
State regulators play an important and valuable role in the oversight of nonbank nancial services
rms. Treasury supports state regulators’ eorts to build a more unied licensing regime and super-
visory process across the states. Such eorts might include adoption of a passporting regime for
licensure. However, critical to this eort are much more accelerated actions by state legislatures
and regulators to eectively reduce unnecessary inconsistencies across state laws and regulations
to achieve much greater levels of harmonization. Treasury recommends that if states are unable
to achieve meaningful harmonization across their licensing and supervisory regimes within three
years, Congress should act to encourage greater uniformity in rules governing lending and money
transmission to be adopted, supervised, and enforced by state regulators. Congress has used a
similar model previously, such as the establishment of minimum mortgage licensing requirements
under the SAFE Act.
195
OCC Special Purpose National Bank Charter
e OCC’s special purpose national bank charter, proposed in 2016, presents an attractive option
for rms interested in the benets of having a single primary federal regulator. is type of banking
charter may provide a more ecient, and at least a more standardized, regulatory regime, than the
current state-based regime in which they operate. e OCC special purpose national bank charter,
however, does present key policy and regulatory considerations, discussed below.
192. Conference of State Bank Supervisors, Press Release – State Regulators Take First Step to Standardize
Licensing Practices for Fintech Payments (Feb. 6, 2018), available at: https://www.csbs.org/
state-regulators-take-first-step-standardize-licensing-practices-fintech-payments.
193. Georgia, Illinois, Kansas, Massachusetts, Tennessee, Texas, and Washington.
194.
Brian Knight, Mercatus Center, Modernizing Financial Technology Regulations to Facilitate a National Market,
Mercatus Center (July 2017), at 5, available at: https://www.mercatus.org/system/files/knight_-_mop_-_mod-
ernizing_fintech_regulations_-_v2_1.pdf.
195. 12 U.S.C. §§ 5104-08
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Overview
e OCC released a proposal for a special purpose national bank charter for nancial technology
companies and solicited comments on that proposal in December 2016. As proposed,
196
the OCC
special purpose national bank charter would allow charter applicants that make loans or engage in
payments activities to:
• Adhere to a uniform set of national banking rules, rather than seeking state-by-state
lending or money transmission licenses, with frequently conicting requirements,
or partnering with a bank to access bank charter benets (e.g., the ability to export
interest rates);
• Operate without FDIC deposit insurance, to the extent applicants would not take
deposits; and
• Be subject to the same standards and level of supervision as similarly situated national
banks, including capital, liquidity, consumer protection and nancial inclusion require-
ments based on the business model and risk prole of the chartered company.
Marketplace lenders (MPLs) and payment companies are examples of ntech rms that may be
interested in applying for the OCC special purpose national bank charter. MPLs may be attracted
to an OCC special purpose national bank charter because it would reduce licensing and regulatory
cost by consolidating supervision under one primary national regulatory structure, which would
allow them to eciently provide credit to consumers and businesses across the country. Payments
companies might look to the charter to obviate the need to obtain money transmission licenses
in all 50 states. e charter might also allow them to acquire potentially more ecient access to
payment systems, reduce operating costs and provide national scalability.
Chartering Authority
Under the National Bank Act (NBA), the OCC has authority to grant charters for national banks
to engage in the “business of banking,” which the OCC has interpreted to include at least one of
three “core banking functions” — taking deposits, paying checks, or lending money.
197
e OCC
196. The OCC special purpose national bank charter was proposed through a series of OCC announcements.
See Office of the Comptroller of the Currency, Exploring Special Purpose National Bank Charters for Fintech
Companies (Dec. 2016), available at: https://www.occ.gov/topics/responsible-innovation/comments/special-
purpose-national-bank-charters-for-fintech.pdf; (“OCC Fintech Paper”); Supporting Responsible Innovation
in the Federal Banking System: An OCC Perspective (Mar. 2016), available at: https://www.occ.gov/publi-
cations/publications-by-type/other-publications-reports/pub-responsible-innovation-banking-system-occ-per-
spective.pdf; Summary of Comments and Explanatory Statement: Special Purpose National Bank Charters
for Financial Technology Companies (Mar. 2017), available at: https://www.occ.gov/topics/responsible-innova-
tion/summary-explanatory-statement-fintech-charters.pdf (“OCC Comment Summary”); Draft Licensing Manual
Supplement (Mar. 2017), available at: https://www.occ.gov/publications/publications-by-type/licensing-manu-
als/file-pub-lm-fintech-licensing-manual-supplement.pdf.
197
. See OCC Comment Summary, at 14. See also 12 U.S.C. § 24 (enumerating the powers of a national bank as
“all such incidental powers as shall be necessary to carry on the business of banking”); 12 C.F.R. § 5.20(e)(1)
(“A special purpose bank that conducts activities other than fiduciary activities must conduct at least one of the
following three core banking functions: Receiving deposits; paying checks; or lending money.”).
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has also exercised its authority to reach technology-based extensions of core-banking functions,
such as facilitating programs electronically.
198
Key Regulatory Features
e OCC special purpose national bank charter could, as proposed, allow for the preemption of
certain state laws and trigger baseline supervisory expectations that apply to any national bank
including, for example: a business plan that must assess risks comprehensively; capital adequacy;
liquidity; compliance risk management; consumer protection and fair lending compliance; nan-
cial inclusion; recovery and resolution planning; governance; and Bank Secrecy Act/anti-money
laundering requirements.
e OCC could tailor compliance requirements under a special purpose national bank charter
to better suit the safety and soundness risks posed by these institutions in light of the absence of
FDIC insurance and potential business model dierences.
• Insured Deposit Related Dierences (CRA, Resolution). An OCC special purpose national
bank chartered rm that does not obtain FDIC insurance (an uninsured national bank)
would not present a direct risk to taxpayers through the FDIC’s Deposit Insurance Fund.
Moreover, under the terms of the CRA, such rms would not be subject to CRA require-
ments, nor be subject to resolution by the FDIC under the Federal Deposit Insurance
Act. However, in its policy statement, the OCC noted that it would encourage special
purpose national bank charter applicants to meet an ongoing nancial inclusion standard
of “provid[ing] fair access to nancial services by helping to meet the credit needs of its
entire community” through setting supervisory expectations and making such a commit-
ment a condition for charter approval.
199
As to resolution, the OCC would, as provided for
under the NBA, resolve such an uninsured national bank. e OCC issued a nal rule in
December 2016 that claries the framework for such a resolution.
200
• Potential Tailoring of Safety and Soundness Rules (Capital, Liquidity). e OCC
noted that it would consider adapting capital requirements for an applicant as neces-
sary to adequately reect the risks of the planned business model as it does with all
national banks.
• State Laws and Consumer Concerns. e NBA preempts state usury laws for federally
chartered national banks. However, certain other consumer protections and state contract
law may apply, including state laws regarding foreclosure.
201
Other key features of the OCC proposal that would require some clarications are:
198. OCC’s authority on these issues has been challenged in two lawsuits that have been dismissed on ripe-
ness grounds. See Conference of State Bank Supervisors v. Office of the Comptroller of the Currency, No.
17-0763, 2018 WL 2023507 (D.D.C. Apr. 30, 2018); Vullo v. Office of the Comptroller of the Currency, No.
17-cv-3574, 2017 WL 6512245 (S.D.N.Y. Dec. 12, 2017).
199
. See OCC Fintech Paper, at 12; see also 12 C.F.R. § 5.20(f)(1)(ii).
200
. The OCC’s resolution framework would apply to any type of uninsured national bank that the OCC charters.
See Receiverships for Uninsured National Banks (Dec. 15, 2016) [81 Fed. Reg. 92594 (Dec. 20, 2016)].
201
. See for example 12 U.S.C. § 7.4008 (non-real estate lending).
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• Regulatory Coordination. National banks, including special purpose national banks, are
required (with limited exceptions) to become members of the Federal Reserve System.
e Federal Reserve would have to assess whether an OCC special purpose national bank
would be given access to the Federal Reserve payment systems.
202
• Activities Incidental to the Business of Banking. e OCC has authority to dene what
activities are part of the business of banking or incidental to the business of banking.
203
e OCC indicated it would consider the permissibility of new activities for a special
purpose national bank charter on a case-by-case basis.
204
Recommendations
Treasury recommends that the OCC move forward with prudent and carefully considered applica-
tions for special purpose national bank charters.
OCC special purpose national banks should not be
permitted to accept FDIC-insured deposits, to reduce risks to taxpayers. e OCC should consider
whether it is appropriate to apply nancial inclusion requirements to special purpose national banks.
e Federal Reserve should assess whether OCC special purpose national banks should receive access
to federal payment services. It is important that a charter not provide an undue advantage to newly
chartered rms relative to the banks that have operated within the existing regulatory system for
years. Striking the right balance to appropriately enable a tailored regulatory framework is important.
Bank Regulatory Oversight of Third-Party Relationships
Banking regulators’ oversight of banking organizations’ relationships with third-parties stems from
(1) their general safety and soundness authority over the banking organization and (2) the Bank
Service Company Act, which grants federal banking regulators authority to examine and regulate
the provision of certain services that a third-party service provider, which may include ntech
partners, performs for regulated institutions.
205
is supervisory regime is generally designed to be comprehensive in overseeing how banking
organizations interrelate with third-party vendors and service providers.
Banking regulators administer this oversight through:
• Regulation and supervision of banking organizations. is guidance directs banks to have
a comprehensive, enterprise risk management process that addresses such third-party
relationships (for example ensuring compliance with applicable laws and regulation); and
• Direct supervision of a subset of service providers (signicant service providers and
regional service providers).
206
202. Governor Lael Brainard, Where Do Banks Fit in the Fintech Stack (Apr. 28, 2017), available at: https://www.
federalreserve.gov/newsevents/speech/brainard20170428a.htm.
203
. 12 U.S.C. § 24.
204
. OCC Fintech Paper, at 4.
205
. 12 U.S.C. § 1867(c).
206.
Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council, Supervision of Technology Service Providers (Oct. 2012), at
1, available at: https://ithandbook.ffiec.gov/media/274876/ffiec_itbooklet_supervisionoftechnologyservicepro-
viders.pdf (“FFIEC TSP Handbook”).
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Critically, a banking organization’s use of a third-party service provider does not diminish the
responsibility of the bank to ensure that the activities are conducted in a safe and sound manner
and in compliance with applicable laws and regulations, just as if the institution were to perform
the activities in-house.
Drivers of ird-Party Risk
Technological innovation, specialization, cost, and today’s competitiveness all contribute to
nancial institutions’ increased outsourcing to third parties. Some of this outsourcing includes
specic functions (e.g., human resources, taxes, law, and information technology), customer
related activities, and lines of business. is has led to new forms of risk as nancial institutions
become more reliant on others to perform business functions, support services, and technology
provisioning. For example, as technology providers increase, cyber risks may increase because of
the introduction of new vulnerabilities that may be exploited as vectors for intrusions. In recent
years, regulators’ and rms’ attention to third-party risks and relationships have increased for a
variety of reasons, including the following:
• Consumer-Related Concerns. Banks have increasingly been held responsible for the sales
practices of third parties that marketed products on their behalf.
207
ese incidents have
heightened the importance of managing third-party risks related to consumer compliance
and protecting a rm’s reputation.
• Information Security Concerns. Several high prole data breaches have increased atten-
tion to cyber risks. In 2014, Target acknowledged that the payment information of 40
million customers, along with up to 70 million customers’ personal information, had
been breached as the result of a third-party vendor’s systems being compromised.
208
In 2013, regulators notied banking customers of a serious data breach that occurred
in 2011 at one of the largest payments information processors used by banks, Fidelity
National Information Services.
209
• Other Operational Risks. Dependence on third parties also raises concerns regarding
concentration risk, the reliance on a few vendors to enable the execution of critical
functions and services, and highlights the need for contingency planning for both the
2 07. See, for example, Bureau of Consumer Financial Protection, Press Release – Consumer Financial Protection
Bureau Orders Santander Bank to Pay $10 Million Fine for Illegal Overdraft Practices (Jul. 14, 2016), avail-
able at: https://www.consumerfinance.gov/about-us/newsroom/consumer-financial-protection-bureau-orders-
santander-bank-pay-10-million-fine-illegal-overdraft-practices/; Bureau of Consumer Financial Protection,
Press Release – CFPB Orders American Express to Pay $59.5 Million for Illegal Credit Card Practices
(Dec. 23, 2013), available at: https://www.consumerfinance.gov/about-us/newsroom/cfpb-orders-ameri-
can-express-to-pay-59-5-million-for-illegal-credit-card-practices/; Bureau of Consumer Financial Protection,
Press Release – CFPB Orders Chase and JPMorgan Chase to Pay $309 Million Refund for Illegal Credit
Card Practices (Sept. 19, 2013), available at: https://www.consumerfinance.gov/about-us/newsroom/
cfpb-orders-chase-and-jpmorgan-chase-to-pay-309-million-refund-for-illegal-credit-card-practices/.
208
. Testimony of John Mulligan, Executive Vice President and Chief Financial Officer of Target Corporation, before
the Senate Judiciary Committee (Feb. 4, 2014), available at: https://corporate.target.com/_media/TargetCorp/
global/PDF/Target-SJC-020414.pdf.
209. Tracy Kitten, OCC: More Third-Party Risk Guidance, Bank Info Security (Aug. 26, 2014), available at: https://
www.bankinfosecurity.com/occ-more-third-party-risk-guidance-a-7233.
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nancial rm and the vendor. A range of high-prole risk events, including large storms,
have heightened the need to have up-to-date and well tested contingency plans in the
event of an IT failure within the technology infrastructure. Such planning is critical to
mitigate the consequences of power outages, ooding, and data redundancies. In addi-
tion to these risks, rms expressed concerns regarding resourcing, including facilities and
workforce, and ensuring the availability of the requisite supporting services.
• Financial Technology Partnerships. Banking organizations have increasingly partnered
with technology providers and other vendors to drive down costs (e.g., the adoption
of cloud services or other IT outsourcing) or promote increased tech-enabled nancial
services (e.g., the growing partnership with digital lenders).
Regulatory Responses
Regulators have also been responding to these developments. Since 2008, each of the prudential
banking regulators have separately issued updated guidance with respect to third-party vendor risk
management. e OCC and the Federal Reserve separately issued specic guidance on third-party
risk in 2013, while the FDIC issued guidance in 2008 (and proposed guidance on third-party
lending in 2016 that it never nalized).
210
e Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council,
an interagency group, and other agencies have also taken relevant action.
211
Challenges Identied with the Current Approach
A number of challenges have been identied with the banking regulators’ current approach to
third-party vendors and service providers.
210. Office of the Comptroller of the Currency, Risk Management Guidance for Third Party Relationships, OCC
Bulletin 2013-29 (Oct. 2013), available at: https://www.occ.gov/news-issuances/bulletins/2013/bulle-
tin-2013-29.html; Office of the Comptroller of the Currency, Supplemental Exam Procedures for Third Party
Relationships, OCC Bulletin 2017-7 (Jan. 2017), available at: https://www.occ.gov/news-issuances/bul-
letins/2017/bulletin-2017-7.html; Office of the Comptroller of the Currency, Frequently Asked Questions to
Supplement OCC Bulletin 2013-29, OCC Bulletin 2017-21 (Jun. 2017), available at: https://www.occ.gov/
news-issuances/bulletins/2017/bulletin-2017-21.html; Federal Reserve Board of Governors, Guidance on
Managing Outsourcing Risk (Dec. 5, 2013), available at: https://www.federalreserve.gov/supervisionreg/srlet-
ters/sr1319a1.pdf; Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, Examination Guidance for Third-Party Lending
(July 29, 2016), available at: https://www.fdic.gov/news/news/financial/2016/fil16050a.pdf; Federal Deposit
Insurance Corporation, Third-Party Risk – Guidance for Managing Third-Party Risk, FIL-44-2008 (June 6,
2008), available at: https://www.fdic.gov/news/news/financial/2008/fil08044.html.
211.
Karen Ross and Doug Posey, Davis Wright Tremaine LLP, FFIEC Releases New Booklet for the Supervision of
Technology Service Providers (Nov. 19, 2012), available at: https://www.paymentlawadvisor.com/2012/11/19/
ffiec-releases-new-booklet-for-the-supervision-of-technology-service-providers/; Brian J. Hurh, Davis Wright
Tremaine LLP, FTC Order Against Fraudulent Payment Processor Joins Growing List of Regulatory Actions
Involving Third Party Service Providers (Mar. 19, 2013), available at: https://www.paymentlawadvisor.
com/2013/03/19/ftc-order-against-fraudulent-payment-processor-joins-growing-list-of-regulatory-actions-
involving-third-party-service-providers/; Bureau of Consumer Financial Protection, Service Providers, Bulletin
2012-03 (April 13, 2012), available at: https://files.consumerfinance.gov/f/201204_cfpb_bulletin_service-pro-
viders.pdf (Dodd-Frank grants the Bureau supervisory and enforcement authority over supervised service pro-
viders); Compliance Bulletin and Policy Guidance; 2016-02, Service Providers (Oct. 19, 2016) [81 Fed. Reg.
74410 (Oct. 26, 2016)].
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Regulatory Eciency and Uncertainties
Both banks and service providers have raised concerns about the growing compliance costs related
to third-party oversight. Signicant service providers
212
have raised concerns about ineciencies
in oversight because they are overseen by both federal banking regulators and each bank to which
they provide a service. Banks of all sizes have raised concerns about the cost of compliance because
multiple banks subject the same vendors to similar third-party oversight, related due diligence, and
other requirements.
Banking agencies’ third-party guidance, while broadly similar, is also not entirely consistent. e
inconsistencies can be compounded by the inconsistent application of standards by individual
examination teams within agencies. Some areas of existing guidance that rms struggle to apply
uniformly may include the scope of vendors or third-parties covered, the categorization of which
partners should be subject to heighted risk-based attention, and the terms and conditions that
banks are expected to require of these partners. Banks have also said there is some lack of clarity
in how this regulatory framework applies to data aggregators (see the discussion on clarifying
when data aggregators are subject to third-party guidance in the preceding chapter on Embracing
Digitization, Data, and Technology).
Related to these inconsistencies in third-party oversight, banking organizations have raised con-
cerns about the strict implementation of such guidance through the “trickle-down” of best practices
(i.e., where the most stringent due diligence standards available are expected for many vendors).
While the written guidance for third-party risk generally allows for risk-based or more tailored
approaches, a number of factors contribute to more stringent de facto regulation. For example,
banks looking to avoid criticism from their examiners might adopt a more uniformly stringent
vendor oversight approach rather than trying to convince their examiners to permit a more tailored
approach to vendor oversight.
Technology Partnerships
Smaller, nonbank ntech rms and banks have raised concerns that the overall burden of the
third-party supervisory regime sties the ability of new rms to partner with banks. For example,
smaller and less mature nonbank start-up rms face requirements that are inappropriately tai-
lored, such as having to complete the same due diligence information requests required of rms
with signicantly greater scale or complexity. Similarly, community banks have expressed concern
about their capacity to undertake the requisite due diligence and ongoing vendor management
(especially with larger vendors). At the same time, ntechs and banks have said that the third-party
oversight framework is critical to overseeing risks in certain bank-ntech partnership activities,
such as lending.
Cloud-related service relationships also appear to face some challenges. Some banking organiza-
tions have expressed diculties in the deployment of cloud services because of the administrative
burdens of getting multiple regulators on board or unclear recognition of independent audit and
certication standards. Banks have noted that ntech partnerships may also be hindered by a lack
of clarity about whether a third-party vendor’s sub-contractors, such as a cloud-service provider
212. FFIEC TSP Handbook, at 1.
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(i.e., a fourth party), must also meet due diligence requirements. Small ntech rms often lack a
realistic ability to impose any such requirements upon such fourth-party vendors.
Recommendations
Federal banking regulators should, in coordination, review current third-party guidance through
a notice and comment process. U.S. banking regulators should further harmonize their guidance
with a greater emphasis on (1) improving the current tailoring and scope of application of guid-
ance upon third-party vendors to improve the eciency of oversight and (2) enabling innovations
in a safe and prudent manner. Such a review should specically consider how to:
• Further develop the framework to regulate bank partnerships with ntech lenders to
apply strong and tailored regulatory oversight while also supporting eorts by banks,
particularly smaller community banks, to partner with ntechs.
• Provide greater clarity around the vendor oversight requirements for cloud service provid-
ers, including clarifying how third-party guidance should apply to a third-party’s sub-
contractors, like cloud service providers (i.e., fourth party vendors). Further discussion of
cloud services oversight is addressed in the preceding chapter on Embracing Digitization,
Data, and Technology.
• Support more secure methods for consumers to access their nancial data, such as
through API agreements between banks and data aggregators.
• Identify common tools banks can leverage as part of due diligence eorts, such as robust
independent audits, recognized certications, and collaboration among institutions in an
eort to enhance eciencies and reduce costs.
• Maintain ongoing eorts with other federal and state regulators to identify opportunities
for harmonization as appropriate.
Looking ahead and recognizing the dynamic nature of nancial technology developments, the
banking regulators should be prepared to exibly adapt their third-party risk relationships frame-
work to emerging technology developments in nancial services. Moreover, banking regulators
should consider how to make examiners’ application of interagency guidance on third-party rela-
tionships more consistent across and within the agencies.
Banks’ Innovation Investments and the Scope of Permitted Activities
e scope of permitted activities for banking organizations is generally very limited. Banks and
their holding companies may only engage in activities specically permitted by law and by their
regulators. Federal banking laws that govern permissible activities, including investments in inno-
vative nancial technology partnerships, are varied and implemented through various federal and
state regulators.
Banks and Savings Associations
In general, the National Bank Act establishes the scope of permissible activities for national banks,
the Home Owners’ Loan Act establishes the scope of permissible activities for federal savings
associations, and the OCC can authorize additional permissible activities for both, in accordance
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with applicable statutes.
213
e National Bank Act, in particular, allows national banks to engage
in (1) the “business of banking” and (2) activities that are “incidental” to the conduct of such
business.
214
e OCC has generally dened the statutory term “business of banking” dynamically
over time, authorizing activities to allow national banks to keep pace with developments in the
nancial services marketplace and the needs of customers.
215
e OCC, for example, recognized various nancial market developments over time, including the
authorization of various derivatives activities (e.g., advising, structuring and executing transactions in
interest rate, equity swaps, currency, and commodity derivatives products), which enabled national
banks to act as key intermediaries in the development of national and global derivatives markets to
facilitate the hedging and transfer of risks. e OCC similarly recognized technology developments as it
authorized various electronic, data storage and software-related activities (e.g., electronic bill payments).
e OCC has also indirectly aected the scope of permissible activities for state-chartered banks
because state “wild card” laws, designed to maintain competitive parity between state banks and
national banks, often grant state banks the same scope of permissible activities as has been made
available to nationally chartered banks and savings associations.
216
e Federal Deposit Insurance Act also augments permissible activities of state-chartered banks. It
permits state-chartered banks to engage in certain activities permissible under state law but that are
not permissible for national banks as long as the FDIC determines that “the activity would pose no
signicant risk” to the Deposit Insurance Fund and that the state bank meets “applicable capital
standards prescribed by the appropriate Federal banking agency.”
217
Holding Companies
e Bank Holding Company Act (BHC Act) provides the statutory framework for the oversight of
companies that control a bank with the aim of “protecting the safety and soundness of corporately
controlled banks” and maintaining the general separation of banking and commerce.
218
As a result,
the BHC Act authorizes a limited set of permissible activities for bank holding companies (BHC)
and their aliates, including (1) owning, managing, and controlling banks
219
and (2) engaging in
activities that are “so closely related to banking as to be a proper incident thereto” (i.e., Section
4(c)(8) authorities).
220
BHCs that apply to become and qualify as a nancial holding company
213. Office of the Comptroller of the Currency, Activities Permissible for National Banks and Federal Savings
Associations, Cumulative (Oct. 2017), at 1, available at: https://www.occ.gov/publications/publications-by-
type/other-publications-reports/pub-other-activities-permissible-october-2017.pdf (“OCC Cumulative”).
214. 12 U.S.C. § 24 (Seventh).
215
. OCC Cumulative, at 1 (“[t]he business of banking is an evolving concept and the permissible activities of
national banks similarly evolve over time”).
216.
Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, and Office of the
Comptroller of the Currency, Report to the Congress and the Financial Stability Oversight Council Pursuant to
Section 620 of the Dodd-Frank Act (Sept. 2016), at 51, available at: https://www.federalreserve.gov/newsev-
ents/pressreleases/files/bcreg20160908a1.pdf (“Section 620 Report”).
217. 12 U.S.C. § 1831a(a)(1).
218
. Section 620 Report, at 3.
219
. 12 U.S.C. § 1843(a).
220.
See 12 U.S.C. § 1843(c)(8).
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benet from a greater range of permissible activity under amendments made by the GLBA. e
BHC Act, as amended by the GLBA, authorizes nancial holding companies to engage in any
activity that (i) the Federal Reserve, in consultation with the Secretary of the Treasury, determines
is “nancial in nature or incidental to such nancial activity,” or (2) the Federal Reserve determines
is “complementary to a nancial activity and does not pose a substantial risk to the safety and
soundness of depository institutions or the nancial system generally.”
221
e BHC Act’s denition
of “control” is critical to determining how the statute is applied and to which rms its activity
restrictions apply. e BHC Act denes “bank holding company” as any company that controls a
BHC or bank (not including Industrial Loan Companies).
222
A company generally controls a BHC
or bank if the company: (1) owns more than 25% of any class of voting securities; (2) controls
in any manner the election of a majority of the directors of the BHC or bank; or (3) exercises
“a controlling inuence” over the management or policies of the BHC or bank.
223
e Federal
Reserve is responsible for determining what constitutes a “controlling inuence.”
Figure 9: Overview of Authorities for Permitted Activities for Banking Organizations
Authorizing
Federal Statute
Types of Permitted Activities Interpreted by Banking
Organizations Subject
to These Authorities
National Bank
Act
Business of Banking OCC National Banks
Incidental to the Business of Banking OCC National Banks
Federal Deposit
Insurance Act
State-authorized activities that do not
present risks to the Deposit Insurance
Fund
State Regulators;
FDIC
State-chartered Banks
Bank Holding
Company Act
(as amended by
GLBA)
Managing and controlling an insured
depository
Fed All Bank Holding and
Financial Holding
Companies
Closely related to banking or an incident
thereto
Fed All Bank Holding and
Financial Holding
Companies
Financial in nature or incidental to a
financial activity (e.g., securities and
insurance)
Fed;
Treasury
Financial Holding
Companies
Complementary to a financial activity and
that does not present risks to inst. safety
or the financial system generally
Fed Financial Holding
Companies
Source: National Bank Act, 12 U.S.C. §§ 24 and 24a; Federal Deposit Insurance Act, 12 U.S.C. § 1831a; Bank Holding Company
Act, 12 U.S.C. § 1843. The permissible activities available to state-chartered banks is also determined by National Bank Act authori-
ties because states have adopted laws that generally maintain parity with national banks’ scope of permitted activities.
221. 12 U.S.C. § 1843(k)(1); see also Section 620 Report, at 4-5.
222
. 12 U.S.C. § 1841(a)(1).
223
. 12 U.S.C. § 1841(a)(2).
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Challenges with the Current Approach
e restrictions on BHCs’ permissible activities and investments present several interrelated chal-
lenges to innovation eorts by these rms.
Responding to market developments, BHCs have sought to invest in various nancial technology-
related rms to facilitate innovation. However, the current application of the BHC denition of
“control” can discourage banks from such investments, because (1) ntech rms receiving BHC
investments would like to avoid being considered a BHC aliate because they would become sub-
ject to BHC-related regulations, including becoming subject to the applicable activities restrictions
(discussed above); and (2) “control” can be dicult to determine because it relies upon Federal
Reserve discretion under a process that is not suciently transparent. One of the considerations
for dening “control” is the nature of the business relationship between the BHC and the rm
receiving the equity investment. A BHC may seek to expand its business relationship with a suc-
cessful ntech in which it has invested, yet doing so could then trigger “control” and the attendant
BHC Act regulatory requirements.
More generally, banking organizations are increasingly required to deploy new technologies to
serve customer needs and may do so through acquisitions, partnerships, or internal development.
In particular, the highly dynamic nature of nancial technologies today could result in banking
regulators considering certain technology-based business activities impermissible or disagreeing on
whether such an activity is permitted under each regulator’s respective statutory authority.
Recommendations
To support the ability of rms to exibly adapt to new technology and market developments,
Treasury recommends that the Federal Reserve consider how to reassess the denition of BHC
control to provide rms a simpler and more transparent standard to facilitate innovation-related
investments. is recommendation is consistent with public comments by Federal Reserve ocials
who have called for reassessing this issue. In addition, the banking regulators should interpret
banking organizations’ permitted scope of activities in a harmonized manner as permitted by law
wherever possible and in a manner that recognizes the positive impact that changes in technology
and data can have in the delivery of nancial services.
Updating Activity-Specific
Regulations
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Overview
e U.S. regulatory framework for key nancial service activities — lending, payments, and
nancial planning — requires meaningful reform to better enable the delivery of both digital and
nondigital nancial services to consumers and businesses. is chapter discusses these regulatory
challenges and also identies a number of specic recommendations aimed at improving the U.S.
regulatory approach to lending, payments, and nancial planning.
Lending and Servicing
Household and Small Business Lending
U.S. households and small businesses derive credit from a highly diverse mix of banks and nonbank
rms. ese rms provide secured and unsecured nancing to their clients and perform a range of
activities fullling that mission, including loan sourcing and origination, credit underwriting, and
loan servicing. Although banks and nonbanks access securitization markets to monetize, through
sale, pools of loans that they originate, the two sectors are generally dierentiated by the ability to
retain loans in portfolio. Banks are able to use deposit funding to reliably retain loans over their life
in portfolio. By comparison, nonbanks generally have relatively limited balance sheet capacity that
is provided by their equity capital and a combination of long-term debt and short-term secured
borrowing. As such, they often take an approach that is typically referred to as an “originate to
distribute” business model.
0
4,000
8,000
12,000
16,000
Other
Small Business
Auto
Card
Student
Mortgage
Figure 10: Mortgage, Consumer, and Small Business
Credit Outstanding ($ billions)
Source: Federal Reserve Financial Accounts of the United States and Keith Horowitz and
Jill Shea, Citi Research, U.S. Banks and Credit Cards (May 2018).
Data as of Q4 2017. “Bank” denotes holdings by U.S.-chartered financial institutions.
20082006 20122010 20162014
Financing of Mortgage
Financing of Nonmortgage
Consumer Credit
BankNonbank
BankNonbank
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Outstanding credit to households and small businesses exceeded $15 trillion in 2017, of which
residential mortgages accounted for $10.6 trillion, cards and revolving credit accounted for $1
trillion, student credit accounted for $1.5 trillion, auto lending $1.1 trillion, and small business
lending $700 billion. As shown in Figure 10, nonbank rms constitute a signicant share of the
overall funding provided across these lending segments. For example, nonbank companies account
for 58% of the outstanding non-mortgage consumer loan market and 58% of the total residential
mortgage market as of the rst quarter of 2018.
224
e share of nonbank lending in the U.S. residential mortgage market has been signicant in
recent decades due in part to the availability of warehouse nancing and access to federally sup-
ported securitization programs for both private and government-supported loan programs, as
conducted by Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac (the government-sponsored enterprises, or GSEs)
and Ginnie Mae.
225
Of the $1.8 trillion of mortgage originations in 2017, approximately 30%
were retained in portfolio (generally by the originator).
226
Except for a relatively limited amount of
issuance through private-label securities (PLS), most of the remaining 70% of 2017 volume was
securitized by the GSEs or Ginnie Mae.
227
Nonbanks enjoy access to these securitization channels
on largely equal footing to banks, which supports their ability to accommodate a large share of the
origination market.
As discussed later in this chapter, the value proposition of marketplace lenders has resulted in
their expansion, though these rms account for just a small fraction
228
of the much larger, multi-
trillion dollar consumer credit market. Installment and payday lending activity have consistently
been dominated by nonbanks, though banks and credit unions have historically provided some
products that served similar short-term, small-dollar nancing needs.
e U.S. capital markets are the largest, deepest, and most vibrant in the world. e nation’s
economy successfully derives a larger portion of business and consumer nancing from its capital
markets, rather than the banking system, than most other advanced economies. is includes reli-
able access to capital through securitization, a capital market evolution that has consistently been
enabled by advances in information technology and the increased scope and cost-eectiveness of
data storage and data management.
224. Keith Horowitz and Jill Shea, Citi Research: U.S. Banks and Credit Cards (May 2018).
225.
For a discussion of how the rise of the secondary mortgage market and new federal regulation were contribu-
tors to a more unbundled housing finance system, see James R. Follain and Peter M. Zorn, The Unbundling of
Residential Mortgage Finance, 1 J. of Housing Res. 63 (1990), available at: https://www.innovations.harvard.
edu/sites/default/files/jhr_0101_follain.pdf.
226.
Treasury analysis based on data from Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac, the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban
Development (HUD), and the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA).
2 27.
Id.
228. Hannah Levitt, Personal Loans Surge to a Record High, Bloomberg (July 3, 2018), available at: https://www.
bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-07-03/personal-loans-surge-to-a-record-as-fintech-firms-lead-the-way
(analyzing data from TransUnion).
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Emerging Digitization of Lending
Technological changes, including digitization, help drive changes to the lending landscape. Digital
lending is increasingly prevalent throughout the household and small business lending market.
Nonbank digital lenders have gained outsized attention in recent years, driven in part by their
rapid rate of growth and employment of new technology-intensive approaches to lending. ese
rms, such as marketplace lenders active in consumer and small business lending, have digitized
the customer acquisition, origination, underwriting, and servicing processes. Moreover, these lend-
ers are designing these digital services to provide customer experiences that are seamless and more
timely than the techniques generally employed by traditional lenders. ese changes also appear to
reduce expenses, which lowers the cost of credit as well as providing greater access to credit.
In contrast, many nancial institutions have yet to digitize their lending at a similar level.
229
For
example, many banks have yet to fully digitize their origination processes. Banks report that less
than half have digitized some aspects of their loan origination channels.
230
Moreover, the degree
of digitization is much less comprehensive than new digital lenders. Even for banks that oer a
digital origination channel, one industry survey found that the online features may vary, as 90%
or more have digitized the application processes, but less than half provide for electronic signatures
and document uploads, only a third provide online customer service, and less than 20% provide
instant credit decisions.
231
Key elements of digitization employed by new digital lenders are rapidly expanding across the
wider banking and nancial institution landscape and are expected to permeate all major lending
segments over time. Within the mortgage industry, for example, Federal Reserve Bank of New
York research sta estimates that stand-alone nonbank mortgage originators that oer a mortgage
application process entirely online have expanded from 2% of the market in 2010 to 8% of the
market in 2016.
232
Moreover, the partnerships between banks and new digital lenders have been
expanding and are poised to increase over time, potentially serving to narrow the gap in practices
between those two sectors for the benet of both consumer and business segments.
Regulatory Landscape
Lending is a highly regulated activity that is overseen by a large number of federal and state authori-
ties in the United States.
Federal laws and regulations are extensive and cover fair credit reporting, fair debt collection, fair
lending, credit practices, fair credit billing, consumer privacy, electronic signature, and electronic
229. See American Bankers Association, The State of Digital Lending (Jan. 2018), at 4-7, available at: https://www.
aba.com/Products/Endorsed/Documents/ABADigitalLending-Report.pdf (“Traditional banks, particularly smaller
ones, have typically lagged in technology adoption for lending, especially compared to up-and-coming fintech
players”). Factors such as regulatory complexity and burdens, technology budgets, or third-party service pro-
vider reliance may contribute to the slow adoption of digitized lending by these institutions.
230.
Id.
231. Id. at 9.
232. Andreas Fuster et al., The Role of Technology in Mortgage Lending, Federal Reserve Bank of New York Staff
Report No. 836 (Feb. 2018), available at: https://www.newyorkfed.org/medialibrary/media/research/staff_
reports/sr836.pdf.
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transfer of funds, among others. Appropriately, there is a wide range of rules, such as consumer
laws governing credit card issuers, mortgage lending and servicing, and automobile nancing.
At the federal level, the Bureau of Consumer Financial Protection (the Bureau) has authority to
implement many federal statutes aecting consumers, in addition to requirements imposed by
prudential regulators, namely the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, OCC, FDIC,
and National Credit Union Administration (NCUA). is multiplicity of regulatory authority
is itself an outcome of a fragmented regulatory environment that at times can lead to overlap,
duplication, and uncertainty.
233
At the state level, there are licensing or registration requirements to operate within a state, state-
specic maximum rates of interest on debt, state-specic loan value caps, and other consumer
protections. State requirements are largely enforced by state nancial regulatory authorities and
state attorneys general.
Both federal and state regulators also have enforcement authorities that generally include authori-
ties to prevent consumer nancial service providers from engaging in unfair, deceptive, or abusive
acts or practices.
234
Marketplace Lending
Overview
A number of digitally focused lenders, often referred to as marketplace lenders or “ntech lend-
ers,” have recently emerged and grown rapidly. Fintech lenders represented 36% of the unsecured
consumer loan market in 2017
235
and around 2% of the small business market in 2014,
236
but in
both instances are experiencing rapid rates of growth and market penetration. Marketplace lenders
have generated signicant attention due to many of the underlying features of these new lending
models. Notable characteristics of the sector include newly branded rm and product launches;
lack of reliance on brick-and-mortar branches for delivery of services; leverage of innovative tech-
nological approaches in marketing, sourcing, and fullling loan demand; and extensive use of data
and data management techniques in credit underwriting processes.
Marketplace lenders operate with a diversity of business models that can generally be characterized
by the asset classes and customer segments that they serve, the manner in which they access the
national market, and their funding and risk-management strategies.
233. The FTC maintains some residual consumer protection authority over nonbank entities.
234. Dodd-Frank granted authority for the Bureau to bring enforcement actions against certain consumer financial
service providers for “unfair, deceptive, or abusive” acts. See Dodd-Frank § 1031(a) [12 U.S.C.§ 5531(a)];
see also Richard E. Gottlieb, Arthur B. Axelson, and Thomas M. Hanson, Consumer Financial Services Answer
Book, Practising Law Institute (2016); American Bankers Association, Consumer Lending, Seventh Edition
(2013) (discussing consumer laws impacting banking organizations).
235.
Hannah Levitt, Personal Loans Surge to a Record High, Bloomberg (July 3, 2018), available at: https://www.
bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-07-03/personal-loans-surge-to-a-record-as-fintech-firms-lead-the-way
(analyzing data from TransUnion).
236. Karen Gordon Mills and Brayden McCarthy, The State of Small Business Lending: Innovation and Technology
and the Implications for Regulation, Harvard Business School Working Paper 17-042 (2016), at 48, available at:
https://www.hbs.edu/faculty/Publication%20Files/17-042_30393d52-3c61-41cb-a78a-ebbe3e040e55.pdf.
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Target Product Segments
e focus of marketplace lenders has primarily been the provision of unsecured credit to individuals
(primarily utilized for the purpose of debt consolidation) and working capital to small businesses.
However, business models are constantly evolving, and rms are beginning to expand into other
product segments.
• Unsecured Consumer. Consumers access unsecured credit to pay down credit card or
other debt, nance an online purchase, or manage variable expenses. A typical unsecured
consumer loan in this market has a balance of $14,000, an annual interest rate of 14.7%,
and a 4-year term.
237
• Small-Dollar Consumer Lending. A subset of unsecured consumer lenders focus on
loans with shorter terms and higher interest rates that typically exceed a 36% annual
percentage rate (APR), which is a widely used rate cap.
238
ese loans typically have lower
balances, below-average credit characteristics, and can be viewed as an alternative to
other forms of lending, such as payday lending. ese products serve a unique niche of
consumers that may not have many alternatives to high-priced credit.
• Student. Student lenders primarily focus on renancing traditional federal and private
student loan debt with unsecured installment debt, generally focused on borrowers with
prime FICO scores and several years of employment history who can qualify for lower
rates (generally ranging from 3-7%).
• Small Business. Small business loans are typically less than $500,000, with APRs that
may average 7-48% and terms that range from six months to three years.
239
• Auto Finance. is segment focuses on the $1.1 trillion auto loan industry, which
accounts for approximately 30% of nonmortgage consumer debt, and has been facili-
tated by the trend of migration of nancing away from captive nance subsidiaries of
manufacturers.
240
National Lending Business Model Strategies
Marketplace lenders currently lend to customers across the country through two primary models:
(a) a bank partnership model in which a bank originates the loan, which is generally sourced and
serviced by the marketplace lender and funded in a variety of manners; and (b) a direct lender
model in which the marketplace lender acquires the applicable regulatory licenses in each U.S.
2 37. Testimony of Nathaniel L. Hoopes, Marketplace Lending Association, before the House Financial Services
Committee (Jan. 30, 2018), at 3-4, available at: https://financialservices.house.gov/uploadedfiles/hhrg-115-
ba15-wstate-nhoopes-20180130.pdf.
238.
The 36% rate cap for low-balance consumer lending emerged in the first half of the twentieth century in the
United States and still exists today as a statutory maximum in many states. For additional information, see
Lauren K. Saunders, National Consumer Law Center, Why 36%? The History, Use, and Purpose of the 36%
Rate Cap (Apr. 2013), available at: https://www.nclc.org/images/pdf/pr-reports/why36pct.pdf.
239. S&P Global Market Intelligence, 2017 U.S. Digital Lending Landscape, at 5-6 and company disclosures from
Credibly, Kabbage, and OnDeck.
240.
Financial Technology Partners, Auto Fintech – The Emerging Fintech Ecosystem Surrounding the Auto
Industry (Dec. 2017), available at https://www.ftpartners.com/fintech-research/auto-fintech.
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state in which it intends to do business. Under the bank partnership model, where, for example,
a bank originates a loan and contracts with a marketplace lender to service the loan for the bank,
federal law allows the bank, and federal jurisprudence allows the marketplace lender servicing the
loan, to charge interest at the rate allowed by the laws of the state where the bank is located, even if
the rate is higher than the rate allowed under the laws of the state where the loan is made.
241
Firms
whose target loan products are at less of a risk of exceeding state usury limits, such as high-quality
unsecured consumer installment loans, may nd the direct licensing model relatively attractive.
Other Business Model Features
Firms are dierentiating themselves along other key dimensions from those cited earlier, including:
• Credit Risk. e predominant business model for marketplace lenders is an “originate
to distribute” approach where there is limited long-term balance sheet retention of loans
that they originate. is is similar to the business model of many traditional nonbank
nance companies, such as independent mortgage bankers, that have consistently relied
on securitization to fund their loan production. Most lenders, however, will retain servic-
ing obligations on the outstanding loans — collecting payments from borrowers, remit-
ting payments to creditors, and handling loss mitigation. Some rms may participate in
the ongoing credit risk exposure by retaining a share of loans (or some proportional share
of credit risk). is can arise from Dodd-Frank risk-retention requirements
242
or to better
align interests with investing partners through a “skin-in-the-game” approach.
• Funding Strategy. Initially, marketplace lenders adopted a “peer-to-peer” funding model
where individual loans were funded on digital platforms with individual investors, or
“peers,” providing the majority of the capital. However, these distribution methods have
evolved and now include a wide variety of both retail and institutional sources. While
some rms have publicly traded equity, many are privately held. Marketplace lenders
have a range of funding structures with a diverse set of investors such as banks, tradi-
tional asset managers, hedge funds, family oces, and high net worth individuals.
• Credit Underwriting Models. Nearly all marketplace lenders are built around online
digital platforms designed to deliver rapid credit decisions. Some rms report the use
of advanced analytical tools, such as machine learning, and various data sources such as
bank transaction data, which includes real-time data linked from borrower accounts,
model-based income estimates, and social media. An important element of underwriting
for marketplace lenders is their use of aggregated data from third-party rms. Finally,
many of the rms have departed from the strict use of credit ratings in favor of more
data-driven techniques to drive their credit decision-making.
Industry Growth
e growth of marketplace lending volumes and the corresponding securitization market has been
on a strong upward trajectory since at least 2013. Estimates for cumulative loans originated since
241. See 12 U.S.C. § 85; Madden v. Midland Funding, LLC, 786 F.3d 246, 250-253 (2d Cir. 2015), cert. denied,
136 S. Ct. 2505 (2016).
242.
See 15 U.S.C. § 78o-11.
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2014 total almost $100 billion, according to industry data sources.
243
Of this amount, unsecured
consumer lending is the largest category, amounting to about 50% of the total.
244
e securiti-
zation market for loans originated by marketplace lenders has similarly remained robust since
securitization of this type of credit began to scale up in 2013.
In the rst half of 2016, questions about the fragility of the funding model and the potential for
conicts of interest between investors and marketplace lenders led to a brief downturn in industry
volumes. Since then, rms within the industry have worked to improve standards for their business
models. In addition, better relationships with investors have allowed for concerns related to how
loan characteristics are disclosed and how loans are allocated to investors to be addressed.
0
10
20
30
40
0
5
10
15
Figure 11: Market Growth of Marketplace Lending ($ billions
)
Source: S&P Global Market Intelligence for originations and PeerIQ for securitisation volumes. Each methodology is based on a
different subset of marketplace lenders.
20152014 20172016
201520142013 20172016
Annual originations Annual securitization volumes
Small business
Student
Unsecured
consumer
Access to Credit
Early evidence indicates that these new lending channels have provided opportunities to expand
credit to underserved segments. For example, a July 2017 study
245
found that new marketplace
lenders have tended to expand credit in areas where bank branches have been on the decline.
Moreover, this same study found that borrowers with similar credit risk proles could obtain more
favorably priced credit than alternatives such as credit cards. e study also found some evidence
that the use of alternative credit data in this space allowed consumers with weaker traditional credit
proles to access credit. is study used data from the largest marketplace lender, Lending Club,
and covered loans originated between 2007 and 2016.
243. S&P Global Market Intelligence, 2017 U.S. Digital Lending Landscape.
244.
Id.
245. Julapa Jagtiani and Catharine Lemieux, Fintech Lending: Financial Inclusion, Risk Pricing, and Alternative
Information, Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia Working Paper 17-17 (2017), at 9-12, available at: https://
www.philadelphiafed.org/-/media/research-and-data/publications/working-papers/2017/wp17-17.pdf.
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e conclusions of this study, while preliminary, are not entirely unexpected given that the primary
purpose of many marketplace loans is to renance higher rate debt into less expensive debt. A
number of marketplace lenders are specically aiming to build underwriting models designed to
achieve better results through providing lower priced credit for a given traditional FICO score.
However, with only a few years of credit performance, these credit models have yet to be tested in
various macroeconomic environments that would include either higher interest rates or a general
economic downturn. Traditional nancial institutions, including banks, have also begun sourcing
deposits and extending credit through technology-enabled web platforms instead of utilizing their
traditional brick-and-mortar footprint.
Regulation and Supervision of Marketplace Lenders
Marketplace lenders may be supervised or overseen by federal and state agencies, directly or indirectly,
depending on whether they utilize the bank partnership model or the direct lending model. Under
the direct lending model, marketplace lenders must have licenses in most states where they do busi-
ness and are subject to oversight in those states. Marketplace lenders that partner with banks may be
subject to regulation and examination by federal banking regulators because they may be considered
third-party service providers to a regulated banking entity
246
and by virtue of guidance pertaining to
vendor management. Marketplace lenders that use the bank partnership model may remain subject
to various state requirements, depending on the approaches used by state regulators.
All lenders, including banks and marketplace lenders, are subject to federal regulation in areas such
as consumer protection, anti-money laundering, and securitization.
• Consumer Protections: For consumer lenders, a number of federal and state consumer
protection requirements may apply, including the Truth in Lending Act, anti-discrimi-
nation requirements under the Equal Credit Opportunity Act, and provisions governing
electronic transfers under the Electronic Funds Transfer Act. Marketplace lenders
may also be subject to regulation under the Fair Credit Reporting Act, the Fair Debt
Collection Practices Act, and other laws.
• Anti-Money Laundering: Marketplace lenders may have legal obligations to comply with
the Bank Secrecy Act (BSA).
• Securitization: To the extent that marketplace lenders engage in securitization and oer
those securities to the public, they may be subject to requirements under the Securities
Act of 1933. ese marketplace lenders must register the securities with the SEC, unless
an exemption applies, and may be subject to risk-retention requirements.
Marketplace lenders, however, are not subject to numerous regulations that apply to banks,
ranging from Community Reinvestment Act (CRA) requirements to prudential standards
such as capital and liquidity requirements, deposit insurance requirements and assessments,
resolution-planning requirements, and prompt corrective action requirements. ese dierences
in regulation illustrate the challenge in determining an appropriate regulatory environment
across providers of nancial services.
246. See 12 U.S.C. § 1867(c)(1).
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Issues and Recommendations
Key Considerations for the Bank Partnership Model
Some state regulators and consumer groups have expressed concern that the bank partnership
model can harm consumers by allowing partnering rms to bypass state-based usury limits and
other state requirements. Advocates note that some lenders operate with high-APR business mod-
els and oer loans whose APRs can exceed 100%, when fees are included.
247
Beyond enabling
high-APR products, advocates note that in the past, such third-party partnerships have enabled
some deceptive practices.
248
Today’s marketplace lenders, however, generally compete on the basis of providing a more aordable
cost of credit (e.g., renancing credit card and other debts) and an enhanced consumer experience.
Many of these consumer-facing lenders generally operate below a 36% APR threshold and have
stated that they would welcome a 36% APR cap for consumer lending, including loans originated
through bank partnership arrangements.
249
Federal banking regulators are also paying closer atten-
tion to third-party service provider relationships, specically lending arrangements, which should
reduce the risk of potential abuse witnessed in past partnership arrangements.
Concerns about potentially harmful consumer lending practices also need to be considered
against the possible benets that such bank partnership relationships can provide to underserved
borrower segments. Traditional lenders often provide lending experiences that are slower (e.g.,
because of extended wait times for credit decisions) and dicult due to cumbersome application
and fullling processes. Many lenders may also not adequately serve certain lending segments,
like smaller-balance, small business, or unsecured consumer borrowers with less-established
credit histories.
Appropriately designed lending partnerships can leverage advantages from both banks and ntechs
to improve upon the currently provided products. A recent study stated that 71% of banks were
interested in partnering with a third-party digital platform for consumer loan origination and
nearly 80% of banks were interested in using technology to support their small business lending.
250
For example, in the small-dollar lending segment, there appears to be market demand for banks to
engage further in these markets
251
, as their cost of capital could be used to deliver products that are
very competitive with rates charged by nonbank payday lenders.
2 47. Letter from the National Consumer Law Center et al. to the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, Re:
Comments on Proposed Financial Institutions Letter (FIL) 50-2106: Third-Party Lending (May 2017), available
at: https://www.nclc.org/images/pdf/rulemaking/comments-fdic-3rdparty-lending.pdf.
248. For example, the OCC took action in 2003 to address deceptive credit card programs marketed through a
third-party vendor. Office of the Comptroller of the Currency, News Release – OCC Concludes Case Against
First National Bank in Brookings Involving Payday Lending, Unsafe Merchant Processing, and Deceptive
Marketing of Credit Cards (Jan. 21, 2003), available at: https://www.occ.treas.gov/news-issuances/news-
releases/2003/nr-occ-2003-3.html.
249.
Marketplace Lending Association, Submission to the U.S. Department of the Treasury (May 2018).
250.
American Bankers Association, The State of Digital Lending (Jan. 2018), available at: https://www.aba.com/
Products/Endorsed/Documents/ABADigitalLending-Report.pdf.
251.
Pew Charitable Trusts, Americans Want Payday Loan Reform, Support Lower-Cost Bank Loans
(Apr. 2017), available at: http://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/issue-briefs/2017/04/
americans-want-payday-loan-reform-support-lower-cost-bank-loans.
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Treasury recognizes that these existing bank partnership arrangements have generally enhanced
the provision of credit to consumers and small businesses. Treasury makes the following specic
recommendations to address constraints that would unnecessarily limit the prudent operation of
partnerships between banks and marketplace lenders.
Valid-When-Made/Madden v. Midland
Several legal issues have presented risks to the bank partnership model used by marketplace lend-
ers. Specically, in Madden v. Midland Funding, LLC, the Second Circuit held, in part, that the
National Bank Act (NBA), which preempts state usury laws with respect to the interest a national
bank may charge on a loan, did not preempt state-law usury claims against a third-party debt col-
lector that had purchased the loan.
252
In its ruling, the court did not refer to the “valid when made”
common law doctrine, which provides that a loan contract that is valid when it was made cannot
be invalidated by any subsequent transfer to a third party. In an amicus brief at the certiorari
stage, the United States took the view that the court of appeals “erred in holding that state usury
laws may validly prohibit a national bank’s assignee from enforcing the interest-rate term of a
debt agreement that was valid” when made under the applicable state law.
253
e Supreme Court
declined to hear the case.
Because of Madden, the ability of nondepository third parties (e.g., marketplace lenders) to collect
debts originated by depository institutions in reliance upon federal preemption of state usury law
limits could be limited in the Second Circuit, ultimately restricting access to credit. In particular,
unsecured consumer credit could be diminished because nonbank rms such as marketplace lend-
ers may be discouraged from purchasing and attempting to collect on, sell, or securitize loans made
in these states because of the risk of litigation asserting violations of state usury laws. One study
of the impact of the Madden decision showed an observable relative decline in the growth of such
loans in two states within the jurisdiction of the Second Circuit (New York and Connecticut),
254
compared to loans originated outside the Second Circuit.
255
If adopted more broadly, the rule
announced in Madden could have broader implications well beyond marketplace lenders. Other
credit markets that could be aected include bank/loan intermediary partnerships, debt collection
activities, loan securitization activities, and simple loan transfers.
256
In response to Madden, some
lenders are changing their lending and securitization activities by, for example, excluding loans
from Second Circuit states in their pools altogether.
257
252. See Madden, 786 F.3d at 249-53.
253.
Am. Brief of the United States, Midland Funding, LLC, No. 15-610 (2016) (opposing certiorari). Although the
United States argued that the Second Circuit erred, the government recommended that the petition for certio-
rari should be denied due to lack of a circuit split.
254. The Second Circuit encompasses New York, Vermont, and Connecticut.
255. Colleen Honigsberg, Robert J. Jackson, Jr., and Richard Squire, How Does Legal Enforceability Affect
Consumer Lending? Evidence from a Natural Experiment, 60 J. L. & Econ. 673 (Nov. 2017).
256.
The Curious Case of Madden v. Midland Funding and the Survival of the Valid-When-Made Doctrine, The Free
Library. 21 N.C. Banking Inst. 1 (2017).
2 57.
Honigsberg, Jackson, and Squire.
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Recommendations
Treasuryrecommends that Congress codify the “valid when made” doctrine to preserve the func-
tioning of U.S. credit markets and thelongstandingability of banks and other nancial institu-
tions, including marketplace lenders, to buy and sell validly made loans without the risk of coming
into conict with state interest-rate limits.Additionally, the federal banking regulators should use
their available authorities to address challenges posed by Madden.
True Lender
Recent court decisions have exposed bank partnership models to uncertainty regarding whether
the bank or nonbank partner is the “true lender” in providing credit.
258
Some of these decisions
have deemed the nonbank partner as the true lender,
259
which subjects the nonbank partner to a
range of state-based requirements including interest rate limits and licensing requirements.
e result of these decisions is a variety of standards for determining which entity is the true lender,
leading to market uncertainties that harm the viability of the bank partnership model. For example,
one court applied a “predominant economic interest” standard, under which the court analyzed
the “totality of the circumstances to determine which entity had the predominant economic inter-
est” in the loan.
260
However, compliance with such a standard on an ex-ante basis could be dicult
because of nuances in how a court might determine the predominant economic interest. Firms
enter into partnership arrangements in which they negotiate a range of terms and conditions based
upon a variety of market, economic, and other considerations. e uncertainties created by these
court cases create pressure to alter these partnership arrangements based upon nonmarket factors.
Some marketplace lenders, for example, have already restructured their economic relationships
with partnering banks to better account for the risks presented by these court cases. A fragmented
legal structure creates an inecient regulatory framework and signicant compliance challenges
for the bank partnership model.
FDIC’s Proposed Third-Party Lending Guidance
e FDIC published a letter on July 29, 2016, seeking comment on proposed guidance on
third-party lending,
261
which was generally regarded as a response to the rise of online market-
place lenders establishing “bank partnership” funding models.
e proposed guidance would supplement and expand upon the principles outlined in the
FDIC’s existing guidance for managing third-party risk by establishing specic expectations
258. See, e.g., CashCall, Inc. v. Morrisey, No. 12-1274, 2014 W. Va. LEXIS 587, at *39-44 (W. Va. May 30, 2014).
259.
See id.
260. See id.
261. Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, FDIC Seeking Comment on Proposed Guidance for Third-Party
Lending, FIL-50-2016 (July 29, 2016), available at: https://www.fdic.gov/news/news/financial/2016/
fil16050.html. Financial Institution Letter 50-2016 is an unfinished proposal on third party lending from the
FDIC.
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for third-party lending arrangements.
262
For FDIC-supervised institutions that engage in
signicant lending activities through third parties, the proposal suggested increased super-
visory attention, including a 12-month examination cycle, concurrent risk management and
consumer protection examinations, osite monitoring, and possible review of third parties on
an ongoing basis.
Many marketplace lenders welcomed the FDIC’s proposed guidance, as it would help arm
the validity of such bank partnerships by providing some federal supervision. Smaller banks
note that such third-party lending guidance could also improve their ability to partner with
ntech lenders. Banks more generally have raised concerns with the proposed guidance, such
as with (1) the breadth of the proposed denitions of third-party lending, and (2) the potential
for inconsistencies between banks where FDIC is the primary federal regulator and other types
of banks because the FDIC would be the only regulator issuing such guidance.
263
Recommendations
Treasury recommends that Congress codify that the existence of a service or economic relationship
between a bank and a third party (including nancial technology companies) does not aect the
role of the bank as the true lender of loans it makes. Further, federal banking regulators should also
rearm (through additional clarication of applicable compliance and risk-management require-
ments, for example) that the bank remains the true lender under such partnership arrangements.
Credit Services
An area of growing legal complexity for the bank partnership model is the provision of additional
credit services. Some states apply licensing obligations to parties that are oering to arrange bank
loans. In CashCall, Inc. v. Maryland Commissioner of Financial Regulation, the Maryland Court of
Appeals ruled that CashCall, a payday loan broker, could not oer to arrange loans for Maryland
residents for a fee without obtaining a license under the Maryland Credit Services Business Act
(MCSBA).
264
In addition to requiring a license, the MCSBA prohibits a credit service business from
assisting a consumer in obtaining a loan that exceeds the state’s usury rate.
265
e MCSBA denes
a “credit services business” to include any entity that obtains or assists a consumer in obtaining an
extension of credit “in return for the payment of money or other valuable consideration,”
266
which the
court interpreted to apply to the nonbank
267
In a similar case in West Virginia, an online marketplace
262. The proposed guidance defines third-party lending as “a lending arrangement that relies on a third party to per-
form a significant aspect of the lending process.” This is likely to include relationships with many online market-
place lenders. Further, the proposed guidance defines “significant” third-party lending arrangements as those,
for example, that have a material impact on revenues, expenses, or capital; involve large lending volumes in rela-
tion to the bank’s balance sheet; involve multiple third parties; or present material risk of consumer harm.
263.
American Bankers Association, Comment Letter Re: FIL-50-2016: FDIC Seeking Comment on Proposed
Guidance for Third-Party Lending (Oct. 26, 2016), available at: https://www.aba.com/Advocacy/commentlet-
ters/Documents/ABACommentLetterFDICProposedThirdPartyLendingGuidance.pdf.
264. CashCall, Inc. v. Maryland Commissioner of Financial Regulation, 139 A.3d 990, 1004-06 (Md. 2016).
265.
Md. Code Com. Law § 14-1902(9).
266. Md. Code Com. Law § 14-1901(e).
2 67. CashCall, 139 A.3d at 1000.
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lender entered into a settlement agreement with the West Virginia Attorney General for failing to
obtain a credit service license and charging rates higher than permitted under state law.
268
Since more than three-quarters of the states have a credit services organization law, these cases
create legal uncertainty for the bank partnership model.
269
Instead of focusing on whether the
nonbank is the true lender or whether the loan was valid when made by the bank, these cases
inhibit the ability of the nonbank to partner with a bank.
Recommendations
Treasury recognizes the role of state laws and oversight in protecting consumers, but such state
regulation should not occur in a manner that hinders bank partnership models already operating
in a safe and sound manner with appropriate consumer protections. Treasury recommends that
states revise credit services laws to exclude businesses that solicit, market, or originate loans on
behalf of a federal depository institution pursuant to a partnership agreement.
Mortgage Lending and Servicing
Overview
In the Banking Report, Treasury highlighted the steep increases in the cost to originate and service
a mortgage loan as evidence of the burden of post-crisis mortgage regulation.
270
Treasury found
that new regulations, combined with the use of enforcement actions, were eectively imposing
a regulatory tax on the mortgage marketplace by requiring lenders to hold additional liability
reserves and add compliance personnel, if not exit certain markets altogether. In response, Treasury
oered recommendations to recalibrate and clarify rules where they were unnecessarily raising the
cost and restricting access to mortgage credit.
271
Concurrent with, and partially driven by, the introduction of the post-crisis regulatory regime,
the primary mortgage market experienced a fundamental shift in composition and concentration.
Traditional, deposit-based lender-servicers have ceded signicant market share to specialty, nonde-
pository mortgage lender-servicers, often referred to as nonbanks or independent mortgage banks,
that are licensed and regulated for safety and soundness at the state level. In 2007, these mortgage
banks originated just over 20% of all new single-family, rst-lien mortgages and comprised 4 of
the top 20 lenders.
272
By 2016, nondepository lenders accounted for just under half of new loans
and 12 of the top 20 lenders.
273
268. Chris Dickerson, Morrisey’s Office Reaches $336K Settlement with Avant
Online Lender, W.V. Record (June 6, 2016), available at: https://wvrecord.com/
stories/510785558-morrisey-s-office-reaches-336k-settlement-with-avant-online-lender.
269. Mike Whalen, Goodwin Procter LLP, Bank Partnership Or Go It Alone? (Aug. 23, 2016), available at: https://
www.goodwinlaw.com/publications/2016/08/08_23_16-bank-partnership-or-go-it-alone.
270.
The Banking Report, at 92-102.
271. Id.
272. SNL and Home Mortgage Disclosure Act (HMDA) data.
273. Id.
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e growth of nonbank mortgage lenders and servicers has been facilitated by and is dependent on
reliable access to the secondary mortgage market, mainly through federally supported securitization
programs operated by the GSEs and Ginnie Mae. e increased market presence of nonbanks is
evident in the share of originations delivered through these federally supported secondary market
channels, with the nonbank share more than tripling between 2007 and 2016 to approximately
50% and 70% at the GSEs and Ginnie Mae, respectively.
274
0
20
40
60
80
100
Figure 12: Depository v. Nondepository
Share of All Mortgage Originations
(percent)
Source: Home Mortgage Disclosure Act and Office of
Financial Research analysis.
Nondepository
Depository
2012 2014 20162008 2010
0
20
40
60
80
100
Figure 13: Nondepository Share of
Mortgage Volume (percent)
Ginnie Mae
GSEs
2012 2014 20162008 2010
Many of these nonbank lenders have also been early adopters of nancial technology innovations
that speed up and simplify loan application and approval at the front end of the mortgage origina-
tion process.
275
Metrics associated with the loan origination process highlight the degree to which
speed and cost-saving enhancements are possible, with average closing timelines stretching well
beyond a month and requiring hours of costly, labor-intensive processes even as digitized, auto-
mated technology exists to mitigate these challenges. Research examining the impact of nancial
technology on mortgage origination is limited given the nascent state of adoption; however, early
evidence suggests positive impacts from the use of automated, digital processes, with a recent study
274. HMDA and Office of Financial Research analysis.
275. Marshall Lux and Robert Greene, What’s Behind the Non-Bank Mortgage Boom?, Harvard Kennedy School
M-RCBG Associate Working Paper Series No. 42 (June 2015), available at: https://www.hks.harvard.edu/sites/
default/files/centers/mrcbg/working.papers/42_Nonbank_Boom_Lux_Greene.pdf.
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nding that a digital front-end loan application shortened closing timelines by ten days or 20% of
processing time without increasing default risk.
276
While the growth of nondepository mortgage lenders and servicers has been supported by their
early adoption of nancial technology relative to their depository peers and access to the second-
ary mortgage market, nondepositories have also benetted from the outright departure of many
large depositories from certain segments of the mortgage market. is departure is concentrated
in one of the key post-crisis channels to mortgage credit — the government-insured mortgage.
Depositories have exited this market due to multiple factors that have unnecessarily raised the cost
of engaging in this line of business, including substantial liability associated with the False Claims
Act (FCA) and costly default servicing.
277
Policymakers have an important role to play in the evolution of the mortgage lending and servic-
ing marketplace by addressing regulatory challenges that discourage broad market participation
and inhibit the adoption of benecial technological developments. In its review of the impact of
nancial technology, innovation, and nonbanks on the mortgage market, Treasury has made the
following ndings:
• e adoption of nancial technology and digital mortgage capabilities has the potential
to improve the customer experience, shorten origination timelines, and deliver a more
reliable, lower cost mortgage product;
• Current limitations on the acceptance of electronic mortgage promissory notes by key
market participants limits the wider use and adoption of this technology, along with its
attendant benets for consumers and the marketplace;
• e mortgage production process is unnecessarily time intensive, with certain com-
ponents prone to delays, which potentially could be relieved through policy changes
conducive to further adoption of time- and cost-saving technology;
• State-level policy and regulatory dierences across key components of the mortgage
lifecycle create compliance uncertainty for lenders and servicers, increase costs, and
inhibit the wider adoption of experience- and process-enhancing innovations;
• e use of the FCA to impose civil liability for violations of mortgage origination and
servicing requirements has likely contributed to the exit of traditional commercial lenders
from federal mortgage programs, raising the cost and limiting borrower access to mort-
gage credit for federally insured or guaranteed loans;
• Dierences across loss mitigation programs and processes for federally supported
mortgages, including those guaranteed or insured by the GSEs, Federal Housing
Administration (FHA), U.S. Department of Veterans Aairs (VA), and U.S. Department
of Agriculture (USDA), have the potential to negatively impact borrowers during periods
276. See Fuster et al., at 2.
277. See Neil Bhutta, Steven Laufer, and Daniel R. Ringo, Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, The
Decline in Lending to Lower-Income Borrowers by the Biggest Banks, FEDS Notes (Sept. 28, 2017), available
at: https://www.federalreserve.gov/econres/notes/feds-notes/the-decline-in-lending-to-lower-income-borrow-
ers-by-the-biggest-banks-20170928.htm.
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of nancial hardship and could slow loss-mitigation responses during a subsequent
period of sustained nancial stress; and
• Federally supported mortgage programs exposed to nonbank counterparty credit risk could
benet from increased transparency into these counterparties’ nancial condition through
greater standardization and reporting of key enterprise business and nancial metrics.
Mortgage Lending and the Digital Mortgage
Originating a mortgage loan requires a multitude of interactions across counterparties, vendors,
intermediaries, investors, settlement agents, service and data providers, and, most importantly, the
borrower. Navigating this process can be frustrating for the housing nance industry as well as for
borrowers at the point of origination and over the life of the loan.
Lenders typically manage mortgage loan production through a proprietary or third-party loan
origination system, which acts as a system of record for the origination process, helps sequence
workow, and integrates with vendor services. In some instances, services are required by law —
such as property appraisals for depository institutions.
278
In other cases, the requirements of federal
insurance and guaranty programs, federally supported secondary market securitization programs,
and the Federal Home Loan Banks (FHLBs) set de facto industry standards. ese standards are
particularly important for originators dependent on the liquidity and reliable access to the second-
ary market provided through these programs.
Across credit markets, technological advances — including the development of machine learning,
database capabilities, and the implementation of more automated processes — are changing the
manner, speed, and security of transactions. e use of information technology in the mortgage
market has existed for decades; however, the industry has been slow to adopt innovations common
in other consumer credit markets. While there is growing use of digital platforms for borrowers to
shop and apply for a mortgage online, further digitization of the origination process beyond this
rst step, including through the use of electronic notes, closings, and recordings, remains limited.
Where the use of electronic les has occurred, it has often been by incorporating scanned images
of paper documents as opposed to developing fully digital les.
279
However, the application of
nancial technology in the mortgage market is accelerating, challenging existing norms as the
industry transitions toward automated, digital practices and processes that appeal to customer
demands in today’s digital age.
Both depository and nondepository lenders are increasingly moving toward a digital front-end,
either through proprietary platforms or commercially available products, as evidenced by increased
borrower use in recent years. According to a 2017 survey conducted by J.D. Power, the num-
ber of borrowers utilizing the initial component of a digital front-end by submitting a mortgage
278. See e.g., 12 C.F.R. § 323.3.
279. See Margo H.K. Tank and R. David Whitaker, DLA Piper LLP, Enabled by Lenders, Embraced by Borrowers,
Enforced by the Courts: What You Need to Know About eNotes (updated as of May 1, 2018), at 1, available
at: https://www.mersinc.org/media-room-docman/1419-enote-white-paper-final-09062017/file.
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application online increased from 28% in 2016 to 43% in 2017.
280
Fewer lenders at present have
the capability to complete the digital front-end, instead using a digital application to trigger refer-
ral to a loan ocer to continue the process in a more traditional paper-based, as opposed to fully
digital, fashion.
281
e capabilities to support a digital back-end mortgage process are even less developed. is stage
comprises the more time- and labor-intensive portion of the production timeline and encompasses
originator-driven activities from processing through loan closing, vendor services such as property
appraisal and title insurance, and, ultimately, funding and sale into the secondary market. Further
development of, and integration with, digital capabilities across the back-end of the process is
integral to the ability for lenders to oer an end-to-end digital mortgage product. At present, this
integration is challenged by disparate rules and non-uniform recognition of electronic and remote
online notarizations, reticence by some county land-recording oces to accept digital property
and security records, and still-developing industry capabilities to accommodate new technologies.
Challenges with Default Servicing, Loss Mitigation, and Foreclosure Practices
Post-crisis servicing rules administered by the Bureau have introduced a national standard for how
delinquent loans are serviced; however, there remains signicant dierences in the loss mitigation
products – such as loan modications, short sales, and deeds-in-lieu of foreclosure – that are
oered to delinquent borrowers. Generally, loss mitigation options made available to borrowers are
established by the party most at risk for credit losses should the loan ultimately fail. In addition,
loss mitigation options are inuenced by other factors such as whether or not the loan is securitized
and the requirements of the securitization program. Borrower and loan characteristics, as well as
the level of market interest rates in relation to the borrower’s current mortgage rate may also factor
into the choice of an appropriate loss mitigation option. e fundamental dierences between
private investors, GSE guarantees, and government mortgage insurance programs result in a lack
of standardization, which poses additional challenges for servicers when pursuing troubled loan
workouts across servicing portfolios.
282
is inconsistency both directly impacts borrowers, who
lack control over which entities purchase or service their loan, and ultimately dictates whether, and
what type of, workout option is available in the event of nancial hardship.
Servicers are additionally challenged by a lack of standardization in state-level foreclosure pro-
cesses. Mortgage foreclosure processes are largely dictated by state law, which varies across the
country. While some states have established statutory processes that permit a trustee to foreclose
outside of court review, many other states require mediation and subject a foreclosure judgment to
court review and approval, sometimes delaying the foreclosure process by years without improving
borrower outcomes.
280. See J.D. Power, Press Release – Despite a Rise in Use of Digital, Mortgage Customer Satisfaction
Declines, J.D. Power Finds (Nov. 9, 2017), available at: http://www.jdpower.com/press-releases/
jd-power-2017-us-primary-mortgage-origination-satisfaction-study.
281. See Fuster et al., at 9.
282. See Laurie Goodman et al., Government Loan Modifications: What Happens When Interest Rates Rise (Jan.
2018), available at: https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/95671/government-loan-modifica-
tions_2.pdf.
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For national mortgage servicers, managing to these unique requirements creates added costs when
an aligned standard could deliver equally eective, or improved, outcomes for participants. In the
face of these challenges, servicers may allocate resources to compliance as opposed to developing
more eective mortgage-servicing platforms and deploying technology that would improve the
borrower experience, particularly for those borrowers in default.
Issues and Recommendations
Electronic Mortgage Notes
e negotiable promissory note between lender and borrower is central to the mortgage origination
process and establishes the borrower’s obligation to repay the lender for funds lent to purchase or
renance a home. At present, the vast majority of promissory notes are paper-based, “wet signed”
by lender and borrower, and subsequently physically stored and transmitted. A fully electronic
mortgage note, often referred to as an eNote, is an electronic version of the negotiable promissory
note that is digitally signed and electronically transmitted and stored. e eNote forms the main
digital component of an electronic mortgage, or eMortgage, which comprises a full end-to-end
mortgage transaction that can be completed entirely through digital means.
Digital mortgage notes have a clear statutory basis in the Electronic Signatures in Global and
National Commerce Act of 2000 (ESIGN), which recognized the legal validity of signatures
and records executed with an electronic stamp as opposed to a wet signature on paper,
283
and
in the 1999 Uniform Electronic Transactions Act (UETA), by which the National Conference
of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws proposed uniform rules for state adoption of laws
283. 15 U.S.C. §§ 7001-7031.
Pre-closing eClosing
Prepare
eDocuments
Review and
prepare
eDocuments
at close
Review
eDocuments
before close
eSign
eDocuments
eRecording
Manage
eClosing
Receive
eClosed
package
Lender eVault
Register with
MERS
eNote
eNotary
Figure 14: Illustrative eNote Process
Lender
Settlement
agent
Borrower
Loan approved
Source: Fannie Mae and Treasury.
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recognizing electronic records on an equal basis with paper ones.
284
Case law in the years since the
passage of these eCommerce laws has upheld the legal enforceability of digital mortgage notes.
285
eNotes require a digital promissory note to be electronically created, signed, secured, and registered,
with maintenance in an electronic registry, or eRegistry, of the party in control of the note and the
location of the authoritative copy of the registered note. Parties to an eNote, or their designated
document custodian, store their versions of the eNote in a secure digital vault referred to as an
eVault, with the location of the copy of record designated and maintained by the electronic registry
itself. e MERS® eRegistry is utilized as the industry standard registry service for complying with
the provisions of the eCommerce laws as a system of record for identifying the controller and loca-
tion of the authoritative copy of the eNote and is recognized as such in the text of the Note itself.
e framework, practices, and basis for eNotes is well established, even as adoption is limited.
Secondary market investors Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac have had guidelines in place for
approving a lender for and purchasing eNotes since the early 2000s. Primary market develop-
ment of eNote capabilities was likely sidelined by the nancial crisis and the subsequent wave
of post-crisis regulations, which required capital resources and process updates. Today, there
are 26 seller-servicers approved to deliver eNotes to the GSEs.
286
eNote deliveries represented
less than 1% of 2017 GSE acquisition volumes.
287
However, as illustrated by Figures 15 and
16, both the number of companies integrated with the MERS® eRegistry and the number of
eNotes registered on it has grown in recent years, consistent with the burgeoning interest in
and development of this capability.
284. See National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws, Uniform Electronic Transactions Act
(1999), available at: http://www.uniformlaws.org/shared/docs/electronic%20transactions/ueta_final_99.pdf
285.
See Tank and Whitaker, at 9.
286. Data provided by the Federal Housing Finance Agency (FHFA).
2 87. Id.
0
20
40
60
80
Figure 15: Number of Companies
Active on the
MERS® eRegistry
Source: MERSCORP Holdings, Inc. Source: MERSCORP Holdings, Inc.
In MERS® eRegistry Pipeline
Integrated into MERS® eRegistry
2012 20142013 2016 2017 20182015
Figure 16: Cumulative Number of eNotes
Registered on the MERS® eRegistry
(thousands)
2012 20142013 2016 2017 20182015
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
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Electronic promissory notes oer advantages over their analog versions that accrue to both the
mortgage industry and borrowers. e ability to digitally execute this component of the origina-
tion process aligns with broader industry migration to digital capabilities and oers convenience,
more ecient quality control, and, when integrated with a broader eMortgage solution, faster
origination timelines. More specically, eNotes are more readily transferred between holders as
they are bought and sold in the secondary market, they cost less to store and transmit than paper
notes, and they oer greater protection against unauthorized tampering, alteration, or loss.
Primary market development of the capability to originate eNotes represents one barrier to their
wider adoption. An additional reason for their limited use is their lack of acceptance by other key
secondary market participants. For federally insured mortgages from the FHA and VA, lenders
generally prefer to securitize and issue Ginnie Mae mortgage securities. However, Ginnie Mae
stated in an All Participant Memorandum in February 2014 that it was concerned with maintaining
the liquidity and negotiability of its pools and would not allow electronic signatures or electronic
documents on promissory notes, security instruments, or loan modication agreements.
288
More
recently, Ginnie Mae has stated its commitment to developing its digital capabilities, including the
eventual acceptance of digital promissory notes into its pools.
289
Both FHA and VA have accepted digital signatures on notes since 2014 and 2013, respective-
ly.
290
However, FHA in particular is challenged by an aging technology infrastructure that limits
its ability to process and store digital loan les, mitigating the use of eNotes or broader digital
mortgage les, and inhibiting lenders from oering this capability for government-supported
loans.
291
As loans insured or guaranteed by FHA and VA comprise nearly a quarter of new
originations, any limited functionality with regard to digital mortgage les acts as a barrier on
wider industry adoption.
e FHLBs’ lack of acceptance of eNotes represents an additional barrier to their further use.
e FHLBs’ primary business is providing secured advances to member institutions that support
mortgage lending activity. e FHLBs currently do not accept eNotes as eligible, pledged col-
lateral from their members for securing an advance.
292
While the FHLBs have expressed interest
moving toward the acceptance of eNotes, they have identied two primary issues to address: (1)
the current limited depth of a secondary market for eNotes; and (2) the appropriate representation
for the FHLBs in the MERS® eRegistry where they have an interest in, but are not the owner of,
eNotes as pledged collateral. In response to this concern, MERSCORP Holdings, Inc., is pursuing
288. Ginnie Mae, All Participant Memorandum 14-01: Electronic Notes and Mortgages (Feb. 27, 2014), available at:
https://www.ginniemae.gov/issuers/program_guidelines/Pages/mbsguideapmslibdisppage.aspx?ParamID=24.
289.
Ginnie Mae, Ginnie Mae 2020 (June 2018), available at: https://www.ginniemae.gov/newsroom/publications/
Documents/ginniemae_2020.pdf.
290.
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Electronic Signatures, Mortgagee Letter 2014-03 (Jan.
30, 2014), available at: https://www.hud.gov/sites/documents/14-03ML.PDF; Veterans Benefits Administration,
Use of Electronic Signatures in Conjunction with Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) Guaranteed Home
Loans, Circular 26-13-13 (Aug. 22, 2013), available at: https://www.benefits.va.gov/homeloans/documents/cir-
culars/26_13_13.pdf.
291.
See FHA Annual Management Report: Fiscal Year 2017 (Nov. 27, 2017), available at: https://www.hud.gov/
sites/documents/FHAFY2017ANNUALMGMNTRPT.PDF.
292.
See Federal Home Loan Bank of Des Moines, Collateral Quarterly (Aug. 24, 2017), available at: https://mem-
bers.fhlbdm.com/media/cms/pages_fhlbdm_com_rs_171_ZQM_109_ima_09B7E4A798CA0.pdf.
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the addition of a new Secured Party eld to its eRegistry, which will enable certain parties, such
as FHLBs and warehouse lenders, to be more appropriately represented in alignment with their
position in the mortgage process today.
293
Recommendations
Treasury recommends that Ginnie Mae pursue acceptance of eNotes and supports the measures
outlined in its Ginnie Mae 2020 roadmap to more broadly develop its digital capabilities.
FHA is limited by its congressionally-appropriated budget but is in need of technology over-
hauls beyond the narrower discussion of digital mortgage capabilities. Treasury recommends
that Congress appropriate for FHA the funding it has requested for technology upgrades in the
President’s Fiscal Year 2019 Budget — a portion of which FHA would use to improve the digitiza-
tion of loan les.
294
In addition, FHA, VA, and USDA should explore the development of shared
technology platforms, including for certain origination and servicing activities.
Finally, Treasury recommends the FHLBs explore ways to address their concerns regarding eNotes
with the goal of accepting eNotes on collateral pledged to secure advances.
Appraisals
Property appraisal practices, including a perceived lack of appraiser independence from loan origi-
nators and insuciently stringent qualication requirements, were criticized in connection with
the housing bubble and subsequent collapse in home prices. In response, lawmakers and regulators
enacted changes to appraisal requirements that have fundamentally aected the appraisal industry.
In recent years, lenders and homebuyers have pointed to the appraisal component of the origina-
tion process as a frequent source of delays and a driver of extended closing timelines.
295
Concurrently, advances in nancial technology, particularly with regard to automated valuation
models (AVMs), have pushed appraisals in a new and innovative direction. e application of this
technology has already begun to disintermediate the traditional appraisal process and, notably,
has been adopted by both GSEs. e digitization of this component of the origination process,
facilitated through electronic property records, development of large databases capable of holding
millions of individual property records, and improvement of advanced valuation algorithms, holds
promise to lower cost and expedite closing timelines.
Property appraisal standards for federally related real-estate transactions are governed by Title
XI of the Financial Institutions Reform, Recovery, and Enforcement Act of 1989 (FIRREA).
296
In order to protect deposit insurance funds and to promote prudent lending, FIRREA assigned
to the Appraisal Subcommittee of the Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council the
293. This new field, as described by MERSCORP Holdings, Inc., would represent the entity that has been assigned
or granted an interest in the eNote by the Controller.
294.
See U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, FY 2019 Congressional Justification, at 26-1 to
26-7, available at: https://www.hud.gov/program_offices/cfo/reports/fy19_CJ.
295.
See National Association of Realtors, Realtors Confidence Index Survey (Apr. 2018), at 7, available at: https://
www.nar.realtor/research-and-statistics/research-reports/realtors-confidence-index.
296.
Public Law No. 101-73, Title XI [codified at 12 U.S.C. §§ 3331-3355].
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responsibilities to monitor state-level appraiser standards and credentialing, maintain a national
registry of certied and licensed appraisers, and oversee the practices, procedures, and activities of
the Appraisal Foundation, among other duties.
297
FIRREA delegated to the Appraisal Foundation — a nonprot industry organization — author-
ity to set property valuation standards and minimum appraiser qualication requirements.
298
e Appraisal Foundation fullls this mandate through two independent boards – the Appraisal
Standards Board (ASB), which sets appraisal practices, and the Appraiser Qualications Board
(AQB), which establishes minimum state-level credentialing requirements.
299
ese standards are
binding for transactions by lenders subject to FIRREA, but are also used broadly throughout the
housing nance system, including by the FHA and the GSEs.
e ASB maintains the Uniform Standards of Professional Appraisal Practice (USPAP), which
sets ethical and professional standards for appraisers operating in the United States.
300
e AQB
dictates minimum qualication criteria, with credentials tiered into classications, with most real-
estate transactions requiring appraisal by either a state-licensed residential real property appraiser
or a state-certied real property appraiser, with each classication becoming progressively more
selective.
301
Until May 2018, to become a certied residential appraiser, an individual would need
to have completed a minimum four-year bachelor’s degree, while licensed appraisers were subject to
lesser college-level education requirements.
302
e AQB has recently implemented changes to ease
the education requirements by removing the college education requirement for licensed appraisers
and reducing the bachelor’s level requirement for certied appraisers.
303
e prudential banking regulators have, in the years since FIRREA’s enactment, established numer-
ous exemptions from the statutory appraisal requirement.
304
rough these Interagency Appraisal
and Evaluation Guidelines, nancial institutions subject to FIRREA may undertake a property
evaluation in lieu of an appraisal for prescribed transactions, including single-family residential
transactions where the market value is less than $250,000, commercial real estate transactions less
than $500,000, certain renancings, and where the transaction is guaranteed by or eligible for
guarantee by a U.S. government agency or government-sponsored agency.
305
2 97. 12 U.S.C. § 3332.
298. 12 U.S.C. §§ 3339, 3345.
299. See The Appraisal Foundation, available at: https://www.appraisalfoundation.org/imis/TAF/About_Us/TAF/
About_Us.aspx?hkey=52dedd0a-de2f-4e2d-9efb-51ec94884a91.
300.
See Appraisal Standards Board, 2018-2019 Uniform Standards of Professional Appraisal Practice (USPAP),
available at: http://www.uspap.org/files/assets/basic-html/page-1.html#.
301.
See The Appraisal Foundation, The Real Property Appraiser Qualification Criteria (May 1, 2018), available at:
https://appraisalfoundation.sharefile.com/share/view/scbea7640298440aa.
302.
See Appraiser Qualifications Board, Summary of Changes to the Real Property Appraiser Qualification Criteria
(May 1, 2018), available at: https://appraisalfoundation.sharefile.com/share/view/s40e607fb0d64915a.
303.
Id.
304. See Office of the Comptroller of the Currency, Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Federal
Deposit Insurance Corporation, Office of Thrift Supervision, and National Credit Union Administration,
Interagency Appraisal and Evaluation Guidelines (Dec. 2, 2010), available at: https://www.fdic.gov/news/
news/financial/2010/fil10082a.pdf; see also 12 C.F.R. § 323.3.
305. Id.
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e GSEs and federal housing programs, administered, for example, by FHA, act as de facto
standard setters for mortgage appraisal requirements performed by both depositories, through
the FIRREA exemption, and the large segment of nondepository lenders not subject to FIRREA.
Lenders originating government mortgage loans, such as those insured by FHA or guaranteed
by the VA or USDA, are required to comply with the appraisal policies established by these
programs.
306
Fannie Mae’s and Freddie Mac’s seller-servicer guides similarly establish minimum
eligibility standards for appraisals to qualify for purchase by the respective GSE. Both FHA and the
GSEs require a USPAP-compliant appraisal for nearly all purchase and renance loans.
307
In 2017, Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac began oering originators appraisal waivers on a limited
population of purchase and renance loans.
308
e GSEs oer these waivers by leveraging their
proprietary appraisal models and databases aggregating public records, multiple listing services,
and millions of appraisal reports delivered electronically to the GSEs since 2012. For loans that
qualify for the waiver, the originator may forego the appraisal component of the loan production
process, potentially shortening timelines by as much as 10 days, and reducing origination costs by
up to $700.
309
Independent appraisers highlight post-crisis changes as exacerbating a mismatch between lender
demand for appraisal servicers and the number of independent appraisers qualied and willing
to meet this demand. Post-crisis appraiser independence standards enacted under Dodd-Frank
have resulted in lenders channeling appraisal requests through appraisal management companies
(AMCs) to subcontract with a state-licensed or state-certied appraiser.
310
Partly as a result of more
widespread use of AMCs as a market intermediary, independent appraisers report being paid rela-
tively less than they earned prior to the introduction of the appraisal independence standard that
gave rise to increased use of AMCs. Appraisers in some areas may be reticent to accept appraisal
requests due to the compensation passed through to them. Delays in completing an origination or
upcharges for rush appraisals to meet closing timelines may result and are ultimately borne by the
borrower through higher origination costs.
Against this backdrop, the development of new appraisal technology oers the potential, when
used responsibly, to relieve some of the pressures in the appraisal market and reduce the time
and cost necessary to complete a property appraisal. is technology ranges from approaches
that supplement traditional appraisals with remote evaluation technology to the deployment
of AVMs to remotely estimate property value without recourse to in-person appraisers. AVMs
306. See U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, FHA Single Family Housing Policy Handbook
4000.1 (Dec. 30, 2016), at Section II.D, available at: https://www.hud.gov/sites/documents/40001HSGH.PDF
(“FHA Single Family Handbook”).
3 07. See Fannie Mae, Selling Guide (June 5, 2018), at Part B4-1, available at: https://www.fanniemae.com/con-
tent/guide/selling/b/index.html; see Freddie Mac, Single-Family Seller/Servicer Guide (June 13, 2018), at Ch.
5601, available at: http://www.freddiemac.com/singlefamily/pdf/guide.pdf.
308. See Fannie Mae, Property Inspection Waiver, available at: https://www.fanniemae.com/singlefamily/property-
inspection-waiver; Freddie Mac, Automated Collateral Evaluation Now Available for Purchase Transactions,
available at: http://www.freddiemac.com/singlefamily/news/2017/0818_ace_purchases.html.
309. See Freddie Mac, Automated Collateral Evaluation (ACE), available at: http://www.freddiemac.com/singlefam-
ily/loanadvisorsuite/pdf/ACEMatrixDoc.pdf.
310.
15 U.S.C. § 1639e.
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have existed for several decades but their use and accuracy has improved in recent years due
to advances in machine learning, database technologies, and the proliferation of large datasets
composed of proprietary and public records with detailed property-specic information. At
present, AVMs are not permitted in place of traditional in-person appraisals for most loans sold
to the GSEs, endorsed by FHA or insured by other government loan programs, or for real-estate
transactions subject to FIRREA.
Critics of traditional appraisals argue that they represent an outdated and costly approach relative
to new digital tools. Critics of AVMs argue that they are dependent on detailed data provided by
an appraiser in order to maintain AVM accuracy, and that the disintermediation of traditional
appraisals will degrade AVMs as a result. Another form of property appraisal exists between these
two approaches to combine aspects of traditional appraisals with the automation and database
capabilities of AVMs. So-called hybrid or desktop appraisals leverage property history data, com-
parable sales data, photographs or video of the interior and exterior of a property, and a licensed
or certied appraiser. As the name would imply, desktop appraisals are able to be executed from
a single remote location, and oer the potential to save appraisers considerable time that would
otherwise be spent in transit to and from properties.
Recommendations
Treasury recommends that Congress revisit Title XI FIRREA appraisal requirements to update
them for developments that have occurred in the market during the past thirty years. Recent
data has illustrated that approximately 90% of residential mortgage originations are eligible for
appraisal exceptions established since the enactment of FIRREA by the designated federal regula-
tory agencies.
311
An updated appraisal statute should account for the development of automated
and hybrid appraisal practices and sanction their use where the characteristics of the transaction
and market conditions indicate it is prudent to do so.
Treasury supports the GSEs’ eorts to implement standardized appraisal reporting, the GSEs’ and
FHA’s adoption of proprietary electronic portals to submit appraisal forms, and the GSEs’ limited
adoption of appraisal waivers. While Treasury acknowledges that automated valuation engines and
appraisal waivers should apply to a dened and limited subset of loans, and that they may compete
with traditional appraisers, these innovations oer borrowers upside through lower cost origina-
tions and faster closings, without sacricing accuracy. However, further application of digital,
automated property valuations must be carefully monitored and integrated with rigorous market
standards where they are used in lieu of traditional appraisals.
Treasury recommends FHA and other government loan programs develop enhanced automated
appraisal capabilities to improve origination quality and mitigate the credit risk of overvaluation.
ese programs may also wish to consider providing targeted appraisal waivers where a high degree
of property standardization and information about credit risk exists to support automated valu-
ation, and where the overall risks of the mortgage transaction make such a waiver appropriate.
Treasury supports legislative action where statutory changes are required to authorize granting
311. See Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council, Joint Report to Congress: Economic Growth and
Regulatory Paperwork Reduction Act (Mar. 2017), available at: https://www.occ.gov/news-issuances/news-
releases/2017/nr-ia-2017-33a.pdf.
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limited appraisal waivers for government programs. Treasury further recommends that government
loan programs explore opportunities to leverage industry-leading technology capabilities to reduce
costs to taxpayers and accelerate adoption of new technology in the government-insured sector.
Finally, Treasury supports the AQB’s recently updated appraisal certication guidelines that ease
the education requirements to obtain that credential, with the understanding that providing o-
ramps for the education requirement in favor of on-the-job training or other education credits
can attract qualied appraisers to this industry and relieve appraiser supply challenges without
jeopardizing valuation credibility.
Electronic Closing and Recording
Mortgage closing, or settlement, represents the last step for a borrower in nancing a home, and
comprises the execution of the nancial and title documents that form the basis for the mortgage
loan and transfer of claim to the property. A key component of the closing process is the notariza-
tion of real estate transfer documents, such as the deed, which are subsequently led, or publicly
recorded, with local county land records. Traditionally, the loan closing is completed in one sitting,
with the borrower and parties to the transaction physically present in the same location.
Notarization methods have expanded along with the rest of electronic commerce in recent decades
and can now be accomplished either in-person through a digital document and notary seal or
remotely through online interaction via webcam and using knowledge-based identication to
conrm the borrower’s identity. According to the Bureau’s 2015 eClosing pilot, the ability to
electronically complete the mortgage process through digital notarization represents one of the
key remaining impediments to the digital process and oers additional borrower convenience and
satisfaction if executed seamlessly versus a paper-based closing.
312
While the UETA and ESIGN eCommerce laws establish the validity of electronic signatures on
consumer credit transactions, additional legal clarity is needed to ensure compliance with state
notary laws for use of electronic notarizations, specically the sanctioning of digital notarizations
in lieu of a physical signature and notarization. To date, 39 states have enacted laws establishing the
legality of such eNotarization.
313
In 2010, in part to account for the development of eNotarization
capabilities, the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws (also known as
the Uniform Law Commission, or ULC) promulgated a revised model statutory framework for
notarial acts, updating its original 1982 model act and aimed at facilitating interstate recogni-
tion of various types of notarizations.
314
To date, 11 states have enacted the revised Uniform Law
Commission framework.
315
312. See Bureau of Consumer Financial Protection, Leveraging Technology to Empower Mortgage Consumers at
Closing (Aug. 2015), available at: https://files.consumerfinance.gov/f/201508_cfpb_leveraging-technology-to-
empower-mortgage-consumers-at-closing.pdf.
313. Based on information provided by the American Land Title Association to Treasury.
314. See Uniform Law Commission, Revised Uniform Law on Notarial Acts (2010), available at: http://www.uniform-
laws.org/Act.aspx?title=Law%20on%20Notarial%20Acts,%20Revised.
315.
Id.
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ese electronic notarization statutes, enabling digital notary signature for in-person notarizations,
provide insucient legal certainty for the use of remote notarization conducted electronically via
webcam, with the latter permitting both signatory and notary to be in dierent locations. Virginia
became the rst state to ocially sanction remote online notarization when it passed legislation
to that end in 2012. Seven other states have followed suit, while an additional four states have
remote online notarization bills pending, with the potential for passage in 2018.
316
In 2017, the
American Land Title Association and the Mortgage Bankers Association (MBA), in an eort to
address legal uncertainty and to facilitate further development of eMortgage capabilities, published
model legislation providing a framework for states to use in adopting remote online notarization
for real-estate transactions.
317
Electronic notarization
Figure 1
7: Electronic and Remote Notarization by State
Both Electronic and Remote Notarization
Source: American Land Title Association and Treasury staff analysis.
316. See Mortgage Bankers Association, Remote Online Notarization, available at: https://www.mba.org/audience/
state-legislative-and-regulatory-resource-center/remote-online-notarization (last accessed June 14, 2018).
3 17.
See American Land Title Association, ALTA, MBA Develop Model Legislation for Remote
Online Notarization (Dec. 19, 2017), available at: https://www.alta.org/news/news.
cfm?20171219-ALTA-MBA-Develop-Model-Legislation-for-Remote-Online-Notarization.
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Despite state-level progress toward wider recognition of electronic notarization, the absence of
a broad statutory acceptance across the country and uneven standards for remote and electronic
notarization implementation has created confusion for market participants, slowing adoption
of digital advances in mortgage technology by limiting the ability for lenders to complete a
digital mortgage with an eClosing. Non-uniform state rules create a cost barrier for electronic
notarization system vendors developing their platforms and creates uncertainty for investors
considering purchasing digital mortgages. In 2006, the National Association of the Secretaries
of State adopted standards for state use in implementing in-person, electronic notarizations.
Amendments to these standards, accounting for the advance of remote notarizations, were
recently adopted in February 2018 to support secure and technology-neutral implementation of
remote notarization capabilities.
318
County-level acceptance of digital security instruments is a key determinant of whether a lender will
pursue an electronic closing, as lack of acceptance of these documents renders such critical eMort-
gage components, such as electronic notarization, moot. In 2004, the Uniform Law Commission
promulgated the Uniform Real Property Electronic Recording Act (URPERA), representing a
model statutory framework to provide county clerks and recorders the authority to accept elec-
tronic recording of real property instruments. Today, 33 states and U.S. territories have enacted
URPERA; however, implementation remains a county-level exercise.
319
As of May 31, 2018, just
over half of the 3,600 recording jurisdictions—primarily, but not exclusively counties—in the
United States oer electronic recording.
320
Greater digitization of property records at the county
level may, in the future, facilitate further advances in mortgage technology, including the potential
application of distributed ledger technology to more expeditiously perform property record checks
and expedite title review services.
Recommendations
Treasury recommends that states yet to authorize electronic and remote online notarization pursue
legislation to explicitly permit the application of this technology and the interstate recognition
of remotely notarized documents. Treasury recommends that states align laws and regulations to
further standardize notarization practices.
Treasury further recommends that Congress consider legislation to provide a minimum uniform
national standard for electronic and remote online notarizations. Such legislation would facilitate,
but not require, this component of a fully digital mortgage process and would provide a greater
degree of legal certainty across the country. Federal legislation is not mutually exclusive with con-
tinued eorts at the state level to enact a framework governing the use of electronic methods for
nancial documents requiring notarization.
318. See National Association of Secretaries of State, NASS Support for the Revised National Electronic
Notarization Standards (amended and readopted on Feb. 19, 2018), available at: https://www.nass.org/
node/1327.
319. See Uniform Law Commission, Real Property Electronic Recording Act, available at: http://www.uniformlaws.
org/Act.aspx?title=Real%20Property%20Electronic%20Recording%20Act.
320.
See Property Records Industry Association, available at: https://www.pria.us/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=1
(last accessed on June 14, 2018).
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Treasury recommends that recording jurisdictions yet to recognize and accept electronic records
implement the necessary technology updates to process and record these documents and to pursue
digitization of existing property records.
False Claims Act
Civil actions brought under the authority of the False Claims Act (FCA) — a Civil War-era statute
— have been closely associated with the mortgage industry since the nancial crisis. Beginning in
2011, the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ), often based on a referral from the Inspector General
for the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), has pursued numerous
claims under the FCA against lenders of government mortgages where it was determined that
the lenders knowingly submitted for government insurance mortgages that did not meet federal
eligibility standards.
DOJ has recovered approximately $7 billion related to FCA housing fraud settlements and judg-
ments to date.
321
e cost of FCA liability for lenders and servicers, and the ongoing fear of future
action by the government is often cited as a factor in the shift away from depositories and toward
nondepository mortgage banks in the government mortgage loan market.
322
e departure of
depositories from federally insured mortgages has likely had negative impacts on borrower access
to credit by reducing the available lending universe and encouraging remaining lenders to add
credit and risk overlays to their underwriting to mitigate lower credit quality, but nonetheless
creditworthy, borrowers.
0
10
20
30
40
50
Figure 18: F
HA Share of Originations
(percent)
Source: Federal Reserve (see Bhutta et al.) using HMDA data.
201220112010 20142013
2016
2015
Largest 3 banks
Other banks
An entity that violates the FCA by knowingly
submitting false claims to the government is
subject to substantial civil remedies: penalties
between $11,181 and $22,363 per false claim
as well as triple the amount of damages to the
government — known as treble damages.
323
Furthermore, it has been standard practice
for DOJ to determine the percentage inci-
dence of errors on a sample size of loans that
have gone to claim and then extrapolate the
incidence of violations to a broader popula-
tion of loans that went to claim to capture
what DOJ alleges to be the full extent of the
false claims submitted by lenders and ser-
vicers. Because the FCA only allows a recov-
ery when a loan defaults and results in a claim
for mortgage insurance, the samples selected
in FCA actions are only drawn from the
321. See U.S. Department of Justice, Fact Sheet: Significant False Claims Act Settlements & Judgments, Fiscal
Years 2009–2016, available at: https://www.justice.gov/opa/press-release/file/918366/download.
322.
See Bhutta, Laufer, and Ringo.
323. 31 U.S.C. § 3729(a)(1).
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universe of loans that went to claim. us, the samples are not intended, and cannot be inter-
preted, to be representative of a lender’s overall portfolio.
Before liability or damages may be imposed under the FCA, the FCA requires that any false claim
be both knowing and material.
324
Consistent with this latter requirement, DOJ and HUD have
a practice of reaching mutual agreement on resolving claims, even though the process by which
agreement is reached has been characterized as lacking clarity. DOJ’s FCA settlements have often
been accompanied by admitted statements of facts by the settling lenders, and these statements
have conrmed the lenders’ knowledge of the materiality of the defects that were the subject of the
settlements.
325
Nevertheless, HUD and DOJ have been criticized for not suciently dierentiat-
ing knowing and material errors from those that would not have aected approval of the loan for
a federal program or servicer actions during the foreclosure process.
326
Distinguishing knowing
and material errors from clerical defects is particularly important to lenders and servicers. Even if
lenders and servicers strive to ensure the information they collect and submit to FHA is complete
and accurate, minor errors are to be expected. Industry concerns about being held liable under
the FCA for these types of defects may aect the decision to participate, and at what price, in
government loan programs.
HUD has taken steps in recent years to provide additional clarity around the severity across viola-
tions and to provide lenders greater certainty that loans they originate and service are insurable by
the FHA. Administrative changes to loan-level certications and implementation of a loan quality
review taxonomy were executed in an attempt to encourage lenders to re-enter the FHA market by
clarifying a materiality threshold for errors.
FHA lenders are required to certify annually that they meet established HUD-FHA approval stan-
dards. Additionally, lenders must certify at the loan-level that loans meet FHA eligibility require-
ments. In 2016, HUD updated its loan-level certication, which attempted to apply a materiality
threshold to instances where violations would trigger the rescission of FHA insurance by dening
liability as errors that would have altered the decision to approve a loan.
327
More signicantly, in
2017, FHA announced the implementation of its Loan Review System, incorporating the Loan
Quality Assessment Methodology (Defect Taxonomy).
328
e Defect Taxonomy classies nine
defect areas by category, identies the source and cause of the defect, and classies them into
four severity tiers based on the nature of the error, with errors moving from most severe in tier
324. Id.; Universal Health Services v. United States ex rel. Escobar, 136 S. Ct. 1989 (2016).
325.
See The False Claims Act & Federal Housing Administration Lending (March 15, 2016), available at https://
www.justice.gov/archives/opa/blog/false-claims-act-federal-housing-administration-lending.
326.
See Paul Compton, Jr., U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, New Era of Cooperation
and Coordination (Apr. 30, 2018), available at: https://www.hud.gov/press/speeches_remarks_statements/
Speech_043018.
3 27. See U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Revised HUD 92900-A HUD/VA Addendum to
Uniform Residential Loan Application, Mortgagee Letter 2016-06 (Mar. 15, 2016), available at: https://www.
hud.gov/sites/documents/16-06ML.PDF.
328. See U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Federal Housing Administration (FHA) Loan
Review System – Implementation and Process Changes, Mortgagee Letter 2017-03 (Jan. 11, 2017), available
at: https://www.hud.gov/sites/documents/17-03ML.PDF.
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one to the least severe in tier four.
329
With this taxonomy, FHA intended to clarify the severity
of loan-level violations — distinguishing material defects from errors that would not impact the
insurability of the loan.
While industry participants have been supportive of providing additional clarity around what
constitutes a manufacturing defect and the nature of the defect, stakeholders have called for HUD
and FHA to take the further administrative step of providing a prescribed remedy for each viola-
tion in the taxonomy and a safe harbor for violations at the lower tiers of the taxonomy and for
those at the higher tiers that have been cured. Furthermore, many market participants feel that
action by FHA alone is insucient to relieve lender concerns about liability tail risk. For example,
the Defect Taxonomy has not altered the eligibility rules for HUD loans, which means it does not
govern when DOJ can or should bring appropriate FCA claims. To market participants seeking to
mitigate risk of FCA liability, the fact that FHA may dierentiate violations based on materiality
in its own administrative proceedings oers no guarantee that DOJ, or a whistleblower litigating a
qui tam action in place of the government, will adopt the same posture. Since the Supreme Court’s
decision in Universal Health Services v. United States ex rel. Escobar, the views of the agency mak-
ing payment decisions signicantly aect determinations of materiality (or lack thereof).
330
Even
following the Escobar ruling, the industry would benet from additional clarity on the common
standards applied by HUD and DOJ.
Material errors in manufacturing and servicing government loans should continue to be subject to
enforcement by FHA and DOJ and bad actors who knowingly defraud the government should face
signicant nes and penalties. But when industry is reluctant to originate or service government
loans in light of the FCA enforcement risk, this serves the counterproductive end of increasing the
cost of credit and potentially limiting borrower access to federal loan programs.
Recommendations
Enforcement of the FCA is critical to ensuring the integrity of any federal program and protecting
it against knowing violations. At the same time, FCA enforcement actions can impose signi-
cant costs on a defendant both in terms of nancial and reputational damages. Accordingly, it is
important that an appropriate balance be struck between what program requirements an agency
considers to be material – and therefore subject to potential FCA enforcement when knowing
violations of these requirements occur – and what requirements are not material, and are appropri-
ately addressed through actions outside of the FCA.
To address the perception associated with the use of the FCA on mortgage loans insured by the
federal government, Treasury recommends that HUD establish more transparent standards in
determining which program requirements and violations it considers to be material to assist DOJ
in determining which knowing defects to pursue. In doing so, Treasury recommends that FHA
clarify the remedies and liability lenders and servicers face, which could include, where appropriate,
remedies such as indemnication and/or premium adjustments. Remedies should be correlated to
329. See FHA’s Single Family Housing Loan Quality Assessment Methodology, available at: https://www.hud.gov/
sites/documents/SFH_LQA_METHODOLOGY.PDF.
330.
See Escobar, 136 S. Ct. at 1989.
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the Defect Taxonomy. FHA should continue to review and rene its lender and loan certications
and its loan review system, including the Defect Taxonomy. Lenders that make errors deemed
immaterial to loan approval should receive a safe harbor from a denial of claim and forfeiture of
premiums. Lenders should receive a similar safe harbor for material violations that are cured based
on remedies prescribed by FHA absent patterns which indicate a systemic issue. In determining
the appropriate remedies for violations of its program requirements, HUD should consider the
systemic nature of the problem, involvement or knowledge of the lender’s senior management,
overall quality of the originations of a specic lender, and whether or to what extent the loan defect
may have impacted the incidence or severity of the loan default.
Treasury recommends DOJ ensure that materiality for purposes of the FCA is linked to the stan-
dards in place at the agency administering the program to which the claim has been led, and that
DOJ and HUD work together to clarify the process by which mutual agreement is reached on the
resolution of claims. Where a relator pursues qui tam action against a lender for a nonmaterial error
or omission, DOJ, in consultation with HUD and FHA, should consider exercising its statutory
authority to seek dismissal.
331
Distinguishing materiality, providing clear remedies to cure discovered defects, and linking the
Defect Taxonomy to the FCA could provide a measure of certainty that could attract lenders
back into this market and reduce costly overlays without constraining the government’s ability
to punish bad actors and prosecute knowingly fraudulent activity. However, if the recommended
administrative actions are unsuccessful at achieving the desired result of increasing lender and
servicer participation in federal mortgage programs, Congress should consider appropriate
remedial legislation.
Aligned Federal Mortgage Loss Mitigation Standards
e Bureau has implemented multiple servicing rules and rule revisions during the past ve years,
requiring numerous changes to servicer procedures, particularly concerning procedures for how to
engage delinquent borrowers when evaluating them for loan modications or other loss mitigation
options. e federal government has not promulgated rules to prescribe a national loss mitigation
standard. Crisis-era loss mitigation programs oered a degree of standardization and transparency
for servicers, borrowers, and mortgage investors around loss mitigation options. In the absence of
such a de facto federal loss mitigation standard, some market participants have cited concerns with
the variance in options across dierent federal mortgage programs.
In recent years, market participants, including the GSEs, FHA, and the MBA, which represents
certain market participants, have established loss mitigation standards to memorialize success-
ful components of crisis-era programs or to encourage a degree of standardization for servicers
across the private, federally supported, and federally insured mortgage markets. e GSEs’ Flex
Modication (FlexMod), implemented in 2017, closely aligns with MBA’s One Modication
331. 31 U.S.C. § 3730(c)(2). Pursuant to a January 10, 2018 memorandum from Michael Granston, Director, Frauds
Section of the Commercial Litigation Branch, DOJ attorneys have assessed whether declined qui tam cases are
appropriate for dismissal.
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proposal published in 2016.
332
Both the FlexMod and the MBA proposal reect many of the lessons
learned and standards adopted following the nancial crisis. For example, both evaluate borrower
hardship (short-term versus longer-term), oer solutions appropriate to that hardship that include
retention and nonretention options, and aim to oer the most sustainable longer-term solution
through the use of a waterfall of steps to achieve a modication that provides payment relief to the
borrower and positive economic outcomes for the investor. Finally, FHA’s loss mitigation program,
which includes FHA-Home Aordable Modication Program (FHA-HAMP), shares many of the
same features of the GSEs’ present modication program, but utilizes dierent steps to achieve
payment reduction.
333
Despite agreement by most participants on the guiding themes for successful loss mitigation, the
GSEs, FHA, VA, USDA, bank portfolio servicers, and private-label securities servicers continue
to oer dierent loss mitigation programs. ese dierences are rooted in a number of underly-
ing factors, including fundamental dierences in the business models, regulatory and statutory
mandates, and the borrower segments served by the range of private and federally-backed sources
of mortgage nancing. e main area in recent years where standardization and transparency has
been achieved is across Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac with the implementation of their FlexMod
– alignment facilitated by the GSEs’ fundamentally similar business models and conservatorship
under FHFA. FHA has a statutory mandate to hold capital and act as a duciary for the Mutual
Mortgage Insurance Fund (MMIF).
334
Undertaking this duciary responsibility to the MMIF
requires prompt liquidation of any assets assigned to it as a result of insurance claim payments (i.e.,
unlike the GSEs, FHA generally does not hold mortgage assets) — a program restriction that may
constrain certain loss mitigation options.
Mortgage servicers cite the dierences in loss mitigation programs as a particular challenge.
Servicers, particularly specialty servicers who focus on delinquent and defaulted loans, will seldom
service just one type of loan (e.g., all conventional or all government mortgages). Managing mul-
tiple standards limits eciency and the ability to automate certain processes, restricts a servicer’s
ability to assess risk, and adds additional costs.
Furthermore, except for federal mortgage programs administered by FHA, VA, and USDA, a
borrower does not necessarily know at origination whether his or her mortgage will be sold to a
private credit investor or securitized through the GSEs — yet that same borrower faces two dier-
ent experiences in the event of nancial hardship that requires a loan workout solution. Borrowers,
particularly during periods of hardship, benet from clarity, and servicers benet from certainty
and scalability in terms of what assistance to oer a borrower who has experienced a hardship.
332. See Federal Housing Finance Agency, Statement of FHFA Deputy Director Sandra Thompson on
New Loan Modification Offering for Delinquent Borrowers (Dec. 14, 2016), available at: https://www.
fhfa.gov/Media/PublicAffairs/Pages/Statement-of-FHFA-Deputy-Director-Sandra-Thompson-on-
New-Loan-Mod-Offering-for-Delinquent-Borrowers.aspx; see Mortgage Bankers Association, Press
Release – MBA Task Force Proposes Loan Modification Program to Provide At-Risk Homeowners
Payment Relief (Sept. 2016), available at: https://www.mba.org/2016-press-releases/september/
mba-task-force-proposes-loan-modification-program-to-provide-at-risk-homeowners-payment-relief.
333.
See HUD Mortgagee Letter 2009-23 and HUD Mortgagee Letter 2016-14.
334. 12 U.S.C. § 1708.
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As such, mortgage loss mitigation is one part of the market that would benet from a degree of
alignment that does not presently exist.
Having a greater degree of standardization and transparency in place across the federal housing
footprint would also accelerate the ability to respond in a future period of sustained market stress,
as servicer, borrower, and mortgage investors would have procedures in place and an understand-
ing of the exposures to more quickly administer loss mitigation solutions to struggling borrowers.
Given the tendency of the housing market to exacerbate weakness during an economic downturn,
having such a coordinated response in place could help mitigate the impact of housing market
weakness on the broader economy.
In addition to potential benets of greater alignment around loss mitigation programs, servicers
have suggested a number of opportunities to increase eciencies and reduce costs in FHA default
servicing. Mortgage servicers believe that FHA servicing rules are complex and, in some cases,
conicting or outdated when compared to current industry practice reected in GSE and PLS
servicing and other regulatory requirements. Areas of potential enhancement include simplica-
tion of foreclosure timelines, restructuring of penalties associated with the failure to meet required
timelines, and streamlining the foreclosed property conveyance process. ese issues have been
identied by HUD in its eorts to review and address needlessly burdensome and costly regulations.
Recommendations
Treasury recommends that federally supported mortgage programs explore standardizing the most
eective features of a successful loss mitigation program across the federal footprint. Such stan-
dardization should broadly align a loss mitigation approach that facilitates eective and ecient
loan modications when in the nancial interest of the borrower and investor, promotes transpar-
ency, reduces costs, and mitigates the impact of defaults on housing valuations during down-
turns. It should also establish parameters such as a standardized application package, aordability
standards (e.g., suggested housing-expense-to-income ratios and minimum payment reductions),
modication waterfall standards that specify suggested acceptable loss mitigation steps, and referral
of delinquent borrowers to nancial counseling. At the same time, these standards should not
prescribe a specic modication product.
Additionally, Treasury recommends HUD continue to review FHA servicing practices with the
intention to increase certainty and reduce needlessly costly and burdensome regulatory require-
ments, while fullling FHA’s statutory obligation to the MMIF. In particular, Treasury recommends
that FHA consider administrative changes to how penalties are assessed across FHA’s multi-part
foreclosure timeline to allow for greater exibility for servicers to miss intermediate deadlines while
adhering to the broader resolution timeline, as well as to better align with federal loss mitigation
requirements now in place through the Bureau. Additionally, Treasury recommends FHA explore
changes to its property conveyance framework to reduce costs and increase eciencies by addressing
frequent and costly delays associated with the current process. As an additional measure, Treasury
recommends that FHA continue to make appropriate use of, and consider expanding, programs
which reduce the need for foreclosed properties to be conveyed to HUD, such as Note Sales and
FHA’s Claim Without Conveyance of Title.
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State Foreclosure Practices
Foreclosure practices are one of the most divergent state-level policies across the mortgage industry,
and one for which certain housing markets have paid a high price in the decade since the housing
market collapse. Foreclosure processes vary for each state but largely adhere to some combination
of two formats: judicial and nonjudicial.
In a state with a requirement for a judicial review process, the owner of a mortgage note, typically
the lender, is required to le a lawsuit in local court to foreclose on a defaulted borrower. Other
states permit the lender to foreclose without going through the court system when a power of sale
clause is present in the mortgage or deed of trust — a process referred to as a nonjudicial review.
Some states allow both judicial and nonjudicial foreclosures but favor one or the other depending
on the type of security instrument — mortgage or deed-of-trust — with judicial foreclosures more
common with mortgages, and nonjudicial foreclosures with deeds-of-trust.
In states requiring judicial review, typically once the lender les a foreclosure lawsuit in court, the
homeowner receives a summons and a copy of the foreclosure complaint. e homeowner can let
the foreclosure proceed or contest it in court. If the homeowner chooses to contest, the court holds
a hearing and a judge decides whether to let the foreclosure sale proceed and, if approved, sets an
auction date. In states without a required judicial process, existing statutes establish the process
required for a trustee to foreclose on a defaulted property. State law, and not the courts, deter-
mine the timeline and milestones in the foreclosure process. Some states have imposed additional
required steps and remediation requirements regardless of judicial or nonjudicial review designed
to aord additional protections to defaulted borrowers.
Since the nancial crisis, foreclosure timelines have increased regardless of state foreclosure
practices, with the national average timeline to complete a foreclosure climbing from approxi-
mately 6 months in 2007 to approximately 33 months by the end of 2017.
335
ese timelines
are generally considerably longer for those states that require judicial review.
336
While the
national share of loans in the foreclosure process has returned to pre-crisis levels, the foreclo-
sure rate in judicial review states remains elevated relative to both nonjudicial review states
and the pre-crisis level,
337
with timelines in some judicial review states such as Florida and
New Jersey exceeding 3 years on average.
338
In certain documented cases, borrowers in judicial
review states have been able to remain in a property for over 5 years without making payments
before a foreclosure is completed.
339
335. ATTOM Data Solutions, US Foreclosure Activity (Apr. 2018), available at: https://www.attomdata.com/news/
market-trends/foreclosures/q1-2018-u-s-foreclosure-market-report/.
336.
See Hamilton Fout et al., Foreclosure Timelines and Housing Prices, working paper (July 2017), available at:
http://www.fanniemae.com/resources/file/research/datanotes/pdf/foreclosure-timelines-and-house-prices-
working-paper.pdf.
3 37.
Molly Boesel, CoreLogic, Foreclosure Report Highlights: November 2016, blog post (Jan. 10, 2017), available
at: https://www.corelogic.com/blog/2017/01/foreclosure-report-highlights-november-2016.aspx.
338.
See ATTOM Data Solutions.
339. Michael Corkery, Homeowners Facing Foreclosure May Instead be Home Free, Boston Globe (Mar. 30, 2015).
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Mostly or exclusively
judicial process
Both
Mostly or exclusively
nonjudicial process
Average Price Change
Judicial
process
Nonjudicial
process
Source: FHFA All Transactions Price Index, ATTOM Data Solutions Foreclosure Processes by State, and Treasury staff analysis.
Figure 19: F
oreclosure Process and Home Price Change Peak-to-Current by State
(percent c
hange)
-2
-15
-10
6
-15
-12
-10
-10
-10
9
15
9
25
15
16
25
26
4
5%
-8
-4
15
-10
2
2
14
10
6
40
48
16
17
18
19
7
8
9
3
9%
-3
-3
38
17
20
1
6
3
4
5
6
12
14
2
Due to the high-cost of servicing nonperforming loans, borrowers in states with protracted fore-
closure timelines will likely bear a portion of the cost of delays through a risk premium embedded
in interest rates for loans made in that state.
340
Additionally, prolonged foreclosure timelines create
a negative externality on home prices, which may harm nearby property values and dampen home
price appreciation.
341
Since their pre-crisis peak, housing prices in states with a primarily nonju-
dicial review foreclosure process have appreciated twice as much as prices in states with a judicial
review process.
342
ere is evidence that the judicial review foreclosure process leads to higher rates of persistent
delinquency than nonjudicial review foreclosures, without measurably improving foreclosure
340. See Laurie Goodman, Urban Institute, Servicing Costs and the Rise of the Squeaky-Clean Loan (Feb. 2016),
available at: https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/77626/2000607-Servicing-Costs-and-the-
Rise-of-the-Squeaky-Clean-Loan.pdf.
341.
See Eliot Anenberg and Edward Kung, Estimates of the Size and Source of Price Declines due to Nearby
Foreclosures, 104 American Economic Review 2527–2551 (2014).
342.
Treasury calculations based upon ATTOM Data Solutions foreclosure processes by state and FHFA Quarterly
All-Transactions Home Price Index.
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outcomes for borrowers.
343
Standardizing and moving away from a judicial review foreclosure pro-
cess could reduce the time and resources involved in foreclosures and support home prices, without
compromising borrower protections provided by federal and state regulation.
For federally supported housing programs that impose a degree of national pricing, such as the
GSEs and FHA, some of the added cost from long foreclosure timelines is borne by borrowers in
states with shorter timelines—eectively imposing a cross-subsidy from faster foreclosure states
to slower ones. In response to state level dierences in mortgage loss severities attributable to
foreclosure process dierences, the Federal Housing Finance Agency (FHFA) considered requiring
the GSEs to impose an up-front fee in specic states where foreclosure costs exceeded the national
average.
344
While FHFA elected not to pursue these charges, it did direct the GSEs in 2013 to
maintain a quarter-point guaranty fee surcharge for four states — Connecticut, Florida, New
Jersey, New York — where the foreclosure costs were more than two standard deviations above
the national average.
345
All four states require judicial review foreclosure processes.
346
However, in
January 2014, under a new director, FHFA reversed this decision and suspended any surcharge
based on state foreclosure costs.
347
Recommendations
Treasury recommends that states pursue the establishment of a model foreclosure law, or make
any modications they deem appropriate to an existing model law,
348
and amend their foreclosure
statutes based on that model law. Treasury recommends federally supported housing programs,
including those administered by FHA, USDA, VA, and the GSEs, explore imposing guaranty
fee and insurance fee surcharges to account for added costs in states where foreclosure timelines
signicantly exceed the national average.
Nondepository Counterparty Transparency
Ginnie Mae guarantees the timely payment of principal and interest to investors in its securities,
which are issued by lenders approved by Ginnie Mae and backed by government-guaranteed or
insured mortgages. With the departure of credit investors in the wake of the housing collapse,
Ginnie Mae experienced a surge in volume, as lenders and borrowers moved to access mortgage
credit through government loan programs. Issuance of Ginnie Mae mortgage-backed securities
(MBS) jumped from $97 billion in 2007 to $454 billion two years later, and has averaged over
343. See Kristopher Gerardi, Lauren Lambie-Hanson, and Paul S. Willen, Do Borrower Rights Improve Borrower
Outcomes? Evidence from the Foreclosure Process, 73 J. of Urban Econ. 1 (2013).
344.
See State-Level Guarantee Fee Pricing (Sept. 19, 2012) [77 Fed. Reg. 58991 (Sept. 25, 2012)].
345. See Federal Housing Finance Agency, Press Release – FHFA Takes Further Steps to Advance
Conservatorship Strategic Plan by Announcing an Increase in Guarantee Fees (Dec. 9, 2013), available at:
https://www.fhfa.gov/Media/PublicAffairs/Pages/FHFA-Takes-Further-Steps-to-Advance-Conservatorship-
Strategic-Plan-by-Announcing-an-Increase-in-Guarantee-Fees.aspx#.
346.
See ATTOM Data Solutions, Foreclosure Laws and Procedures by State, available at: https://www.realtytrac.
com/real-estate-guides/foreclosure-laws/ (last accessed June 15, 2018).
3 47.
See FHFA Guarantee Fees History, available at: https://www.fhfa.gov/PolicyProgramsResearch/Policy/Pages/
Guarantee-Fees-History.aspx.
348.
See Uniform Law Commission, Home Foreclosure Procedures Act (2015), available at: http://www.uniform-
laws.org/Act.aspx?title=Home%20Foreclosure%20Procedures%20Act.
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$400 billion in the years since.
349
Between 2007 and 2017, the remaining principal balance of
pools guaranteed by Ginnie Mae increased fourfold to $1.96 trillion.
350
Ginnie Mae’s issuer base has changed dramatically in both type and concentration, with nondeposi-
tory issuers stepping into the market vacated by depositories exiting government loan programs.
By the beginning of 2018, dedicated mortgage banks accounted for over 80% of Ginnie Mae
issuance.
351
e GSEs, too, have seen their seller-servicer counterparty mix shift toward nondeposi-
tories, with nondepository lenders accounting for approximately half of the origination volume
in 2017.
352
Market observers and participants, including Ginnie Mae, have asserted that the rapid
increase in nondepository origination and servicing activity, combined with a less standardized
approach to safety and soundness regulation, poses heightened counterparty risk. e disparity in
banks and nonbanks prudential regulatory regimes has caused some market observers to question
nonbank durability through the economic cycle and posit that nondepositories pose a systemic
risk in general and a taxpayer risk in particular through the high share of nondepositories servicing
Ginnie Mae pools.
353
Nonbank servicers, like their bank competitors, are subject to a range of federal nancial oversight.
e Bureau, for example, supervises adherence to mortgage lending and servicing rules in addi-
tion to broader compliance with federal consumer nancial laws. In addition, nondepositories are
subject to oversight through counterparty minimum net worth, capital, and liquidity requirements
imposed by the GSEs and Ginnie Mae.
354
As nonbanks are more dependent on execution through
securitization, which at present is dominated by the GSEs and Ginnie Mae, compliance with GSE
and Ginnie Mae counterparty requirements functions as an additional industry standard.
However, bank and nonbank lender-servicers face dierent safety and soundness regulatory stan-
dards. Insured depository institutions must abide by federal prudential regulation which includes
standardized capital and liquidity regimes. Nondepositories are chartered and regulated at the
state level and similarly face safety and soundness regulation, albeit by individual state banking
examiners, despite the fact that these nondepositories may have a national footprint. While state
regulators, facilitated by the Conference of State Bank Supervisors, have made progress in recent
years toward developing more aligned standards for nonbank supervision, concerns about diering
standards persist and have prompted calls for additional alignment.
349. See Ginnie Mae, Monthly Issuance Reports – March 2018 Issuance Summary (Apr. 13, 2018), available at:
https://www.ginniemae.gov/data_and_reports/reporting/Pages/monthly_issuance_reports.aspx
350.
See Ginnie Mae, Monthly UPB Reports – March 2018 (Apr. 13, 2018), available at: https://www.ginniemae.
gov/data_and_reports/reporting/Pages/monthly_rpb_reports.aspx.
351.
See Urban Institute, Housing Finance at a Glance (May 2018), available at: https://www.urban.org/research/
publication/housing-finance-glance-monthly-chartbook-may-2018/view/full_report.
352.
Id.
353. See U.S. Government Accountability Office, Nonbank Mortgage Services: Existing Regulatory Oversight
Could Be Strengthened (Mar. 2016), available at: https://www.gao.gov/assets/680/675747.pdf; Office of
Inspector General, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Ginnie Mae Did Not Adequately
Respond to Changes in its Issuer Base (Sept. 21, 2017), available at: https://www.hudoig.gov/sites/default/
files/documents/2017-KC-0008.pdf.
354.
See Fannie Mae, Seller Guide (June 5, 2018), at Part A4-1; Freddie Mac, Seller/Servicer Guide (June 13,
2018), at Chapter 2101; Ginnie Mae, MBS Guide (Jan. 25, 2018), at Chapter Three.
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Furthermore, during periods of sustained nancial stress, traditional depository lenders have access
to sources of liquidity that nonbanks lack, such as insured customer deposits and FHLBs advances.
Nondepositories are instead funded mainly through lines of credit and repurchase agreements,
which, due to their short-term nature are subject to roll-over risk and margin requirements in the
event of a deteriorating credit environment.
355
High among concerns about nondepositories is the durability of these funding structures for
nonbank servicers. When borrowers stop making mortgage payments, servicers of those loans
continue to advance scheduled payments to investors and other parties until the delinquency has
been resolved or the loan has been purchased out of its securitized pool. While servicers may be
able to seek reimbursement for these advances depending upon the federal insurance or guaranty
program, they must make them out of their own funds in the interim. Servicers of both GSE and
Ginnie Mae securities face this risk; however, the higher delinquency rates and longer foreclosure
timeline for FHA-insured loans underlying Ginnie Mae pools, as well as dierences in delinquent
loan buyout practices, may subject Ginnie Mae servicers to extended periods of liquidity strain
exactly when nancing may be most challenging. As counterparty risk represents Ginnie Mae’s
main nancial exposure, its leadership is reasonably concerned with potential challenges from a
sustained period of economic stress that tests the nancial capacity of these nonbanks to continue
to make servicing advances.
Ginnie Mae has multiple counterparty risk-management tools in use today, including on-site
reviews, assignment of proprietary risk grades, and performance proles. Additionally, Ginnie
Mae, as well as the GSEs, have quarterly visibility into nonbank counterparty nancial informa-
tion, including debt facilities, through required submission of information through the Mortgage
Bankers Financial Reporting Form.
356
However, data quality and the present elds required for
reporting may be insucient to provide the level of transparency needed to assess counterparty
nancial health. Ginnie Mae continues to pursue improvements to its counterparty risk manage-
ment framework, including subjecting its servicers to a liquidity stress test to gauge the durability
of their access to capital during a period of sustained nancial stress.
357
While the size of Ginnie Mae’s portfolio and the nature of its counterparty risk has changed
dramatically in recent years, Ginnie Mae lacks exibility to adjust its MBS fees and hire additional
sta to manage this risk. Under Ginnie Mae’s charter, the maximum fee it can charge for its MBS
guaranty is set at 6 basis points,
358
and is not permitted to be adjusted based on risks arising
from changes in the housing market or from Ginnie Mae’s counterparty exposure specically.
Additionally, Ginnie Mae’s permanent stang resources remain constrained, with approximately
150 permanent employees overseeing a $2 trillion portfolio. At present, Ginnie Mae depends on
annual congressional appropriations to pay permanent sta. While Ginnie Mae is able to utilize
its revenues to contract with outside rms for support services, stakeholders, including Ginnie
355. See Office of Financial Research, Monitoring GNMA/GSE Pipeline Liquidity, slide deck presentation (July
28, 2016), available at: https://www.financialresearch.gov/frac/files/FRAC-meeting_GSE-Working-Group-
Presentation_07-28-2016.pdf.
356. See Fannie Mae Seller Guide, Freddie Mac Seller/Servicer Guide, and Ginnie Mae MBS Guide.
3 57. See Ginnie Mae 2020.
358. 12 U.S.C. § 1721(g)(3)(A).
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Mae leadership, have highlighted the need for exibility to hire permanent sta with the requisite
experience, and compensated at competitive rates, to complement existing resources in providing
risk management appropriate to oversee Ginnie Mae’s considerable taxpayer exposure.
359
Recommendations
Treasury recommends that Ginnie Mae collaborate with FHFA, the GSEs, and the Conference
of State Bank Supervisors to expand and align standard, detailed reporting requirements on
nonbank counterparty nancial health, including terms and covenants associated with funding
structures, to provide condence that taxpayers are protected during a period of severe market
stress. Additionally, Treasury supports Ginnie Mae’s consideration of enhancing its counterparty
risk mitigation approach, including through the imposition of stress testing requirements that can
provide information on the nancial health of servicer counterparties across an economic cycle.
Furthermore, in order to protect taxpayers, Treasury recommends Ginnie Mae have sucient ex-
ibility to charge guaranty fees appropriate to cover additional risk arising from changes in the
overall market or at the program level.
Treasury recommends a comprehensive assessment of Ginnie Mae’s current stang and contract-
ing policies, including the costs and benets of alternative pay and/or contracting structures.
Ginnie Mae would be better equipped to manage its program and monitor counterparty risk if it
were able to more readily attract personnel with requisite expertise by paying salaries comparable
to those at other nancial agencies with premium pay authority. Additionally, being able to adopt
similar contracting procedures as other agencies that are outside of federal acquisition statutes and
regulations would enable Ginnie Mae to more eectively monitor and respond to changing market
conditions and needs. However, any change to Ginnie Mae’s personnel or contracting policies
should be informed by a comprehensive assessment of current challenges. e potential benets of
alternative pay and/or contracting structures should be weighed against the additional federal costs
that would be incurred.
For nondepositories, providing greater transparency about their nancial health should be a wel-
come step toward addressing concerns about their sustainability throughout the cycle and the risk
they pose to taxpayers relative to their participation in federally supported loan and securitization
programs. Furthermore, greater standardization of requirements and reporting could benet non-
depositories by reducing disparate state-level and principal counterparty requirements.
Student Lenders and Servicers
Overview
e majority of student loans are originated by the federal government through the U.S.
Department of Education’s (Education) Direct Loan Program. In 2010, Education fully moved to
the Direct Loan Program, under which Education originates loans to students. At the same time,
Congress ended a legacy guaranteed-loan program where private lenders were compensated by the
359. See HUD Office of Inspector General Monitoring of Nonbank Issuers Presents Challenges for
Ginnie Mae (Mar. 13, 2017), available at: https://www.hudoig.gov/reports-publications/topic-briefs/
monitoring-of-nonbank-issuers-presents-challenges-ginnie-mae.
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federal government to originate and service federal student loans with guarantees of 97%. Today,
the federal loan portfolio has nearly $1.4 trillion in outstanding student loans to nearly 43 million
borrowers.
360
Federal student loan interest rates are set at a spread to the last 10-year Treasury note
auction prior to June 1, with statutory caps by loan program. Federal student loans are originated
at xed rates. However, since interest rates uctuate based on the interest rate on the relevant
10-year Treasury note, a student who has multiple loan types from multiple school years will have
loans that carry dierent interest rates.
Figure 20: Federal Student Loan Interest Rates and Origination Fees
Loan Type 2017-18 Interest
Rate
2018-19 Interest
Rate
Statutory Interest
Rate Cap
2017-18
Origination Fee
Subsidized Undergrad 4.45%* 5.05% 8.25% 1.066%
Unsubsidized
Undergrad
4.45% 5.05% 8.25% 1.066%
Unsubsidized Graduate 6% 6.6% 9.5% 1.066%
Graduate PLUS 7% 7.6% 10.5% 4.264%
Parent PLUS 7% 7.6% 10.5% 4.264%
*Subsidized loans do not accrue interest while the borrower is in school and during a six-month grace period when the borrower
leaves school.
Source: U.S. Department of Education and Treasury staff analysis.
Education provides both subsidized and unsubsidized loans to undergraduate borrowers, unsub-
sidized loans to graduate students, and higher interest loans with higher origination fees to both
graduate and parent borrowers who do not have an adverse credit history. Undergraduate borrow-
ers must comply with strict loan limits of $31,000 for dependent students and must demonstrate
nancial need. To manage repayment for the loans it has originated, Education hires and manages
contractors who perform servicing and collections on the Direct Loan portfolio.
e private student loan market is small relative to the size of the federal portfolio at an estimated
$113 billion, or about 8% of all outstanding student loans originated by banks, credit unions,
and nonbanks.
361
e private student loan market also oers loans to undergraduates, graduate
students, and parents but diers from the federal portfolio in that these loans are underwritten.
e majority of private student loans are cosigned, with nearly all undergraduate loans in recent
years requiring a cosigner; 92% in the 2017-18 award year, and 62% of graduate students requir-
ing a cosigner in the same award year.
362
In the past ve years, more nonbanks have entered the student lending market with a focus on
renancing both private and federal loans into lower interest rate loans. While interest rates on
360. Office of Federal Student Aid, U.S. Department of Education, Federal Student Aid Portfolio Summary, available
at: https://studentaid.ed.gov/sa/about/data-center/student/portfolio (as of the end of first quarter 2018) (last
accessed June 15, 2018).
361.
MeasureOne, Private Student Loan Report – Q3 2017, available at: https://www.measureone.com/psl.php.
362.
Id. at 24.
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these products may be lower than those on some federal student loans, the federal student loan
program continues to provide borrower protections that are unmatched by private loan products.
Federal student loan borrowers considering renancing into private loans should carefully consider
whether they will potentially utilize these federal benets including: a variety of repayment plans
including plans based on income, forbearances available for borrowers facing economic hardship,
loan forgiveness programs after 20 or 25 years of income-driven repayments, Public Service Loan
Forgiveness, and loan discharges for borrowers who become totally and permanently disabled.
Figure 21: Features of Federal Student Loans
Description Feature of Private
Student Loans?
Feature of Other
Consumer Credit
Products?
Need based
program
Federal student loans are not underwritten and
instead are based on demonstrated financial
need and in some cases cost of attendance.
No No
Loan limits Loan limits for undergraduate borrowers are
based on whether borrower is considered
“dependent” or “independent” not based on tax
filing status but rather the borrowers age, marital
status, military status, and children and other
dependents.
No No
Delayed
repayment
Payment is not required while a borrower is in
school or during a 6-month grace period after
the borrower leaves school or drops below half-
time enrollment.
Yes No
Credit
reporting
Delinquency on Direct Loans is not reported
to the consumer credit bureaus until day 90 of
delinquency.
No, delinquency
reported begins as
early as day 30.
No, all others report
delinquency as early as
day 30.
Late fees Direct loans have no late fees No No
Interest
capitalization
Interest capitalizes with every change in
status on a federal student loan, including:
entering repayment, leaving the grace period,
switching repayment plans, use of deferments or
forbearances, default, rehabilitating a defaulted
loan, or consolidating existing loans. Interest
capitalization increases the borrower’s principal
balance and interest expense paid over the life
of the loan.
No No
Interest
accrual
Interest accrues on a daily basis, meaning the
interest balance changes each day.
Yes Daily interest accrual
generally used in credit
cards; monthly accrual
is used in mortgages.
Repayment
plans
Direct loans are eligible for up to eight
repayment plans, some of which are dependent
on eligibility requirements related to loan balance
and date of loan origination. Some repayment
plans cause negative amortization.
Generally only
one amortizing
repayment plan is
offered.
No
Source: Treasury staff analysis.
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Program Complexity and Impact
e federal student loan program is immensely complex due to: (1) the variety of loan types oered
and outstanding legacy loan types that continue to require servicing; (2) eight repayment plans
each with dierent eligibility requirements, repayment structures, and features; and (3) product
features that dier from nearly all other consumer nance products. e natural consequence of
this complexity is that it is dicult for borrowers, even those who are sophisticated, to navigate the
program and eectively manage their repayment responsibilities. Because the program is dicult
to understand, borrowers rely on servicers to answer questions about repayment, enroll borrowers
in an appropriate and sustainable repayment plan, and assist borrowers when they struggle to
make their payments. Federal student loan servicers have indicated to Treasury that the program’s
complexity not only makes loans more dicult to service, but also increases the cost of servic-
ing. For example, call center sta at each federal student loan servicer must be well versed on all
of the current and legacy loan types and repayment plans, as each have features with nancial
consequences and tradeos for borrowers.
Issues and Recommendations
Student Loan Servicing Standards
Due to the federal student loan program’s complexity and Education’s limited guidance on servic-
ing standards, servicers have largely relied on internal business practices to determine how to
eectively service federal student loans. While this was intended to promote innovation, it has
caused diculty for servicers in that (1) borrowers may be treated dierently by dierent servicers,
causing nancial disparities, (2) Education’s website provides generic information but each servicer
must maintain its own website, (3) federal and state regulators have raised concerns with servicing
practices, and (4) both the cost of servicing and diculty of oversight have increased.
Borrowers in the same nancial situation who contact two dierent servicers in the federal student
loan program to enroll in a more aordable repayment plan may end up with dierent results and
advice, which may result in a nancial impact on the borrowers. Federal student loan servicers are
instructed to enroll borrowers looking to reduce their payments into the plan that will cost the
borrower the least over time. is sounds simple, but the servicer’s call center agent may have only
limited information from a borrower and may make decisions about tradeos between two similar
repayment plans (e.g., Pay As You Earn and Revised Pay As You Earn) that confer slightly dierent
benets. Federal borrowers have also faced nancial harm in even more straightforward circum-
stances, such as the application of over- and underpayments. Some servicers have not provided
borrowers the ability to direct payments to a specic loan or have not fully implemented guidance
from Education on how to process over- and underpayments.
Each servicer uses a proprietary format for its monthly statements and certain correspondence.
Because of these disparities, Education’s website lacks basic nancial literacy information about
how to read a monthly statement or plain language explanations of dierent letters sent by ser-
vicers with action steps on how to address the correspondence. To address this issue, servicers
have created extensive proprietary websites aimed at serving their customers. Borrowers searching
online for advice may get dierent information depending on their search results from Education’s
website and the servicer’s website.
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Federal student loan servicing currently lacks eective minimum servicing standards. is has
created diculties for federal student loan servicers when they communicate with regulators
about their servicing practices. For example, a servicer may discuss a specic servicing practice
with Education and gain approval for that practice but run into consumer protection concerns
about the same practice in examinations or discussions with the Bureau. If Education prescribed
minimum servicing standards, Education could vet these standards with other relevant agencies
so servicers do not face conicting guidance from multiple federal agencies. Further, a public,
common servicing manual, like the servicing manual used in the federal guaranteed student loan
program, would be helpful for state legislators and regulators considering additional regulation.
With eective minimum servicing standards in place, states may decline to regulate federal student
loan servicers further.
Finally, servicing standards could reduce the expense of servicing for taxpayers, as Education would
not need to rely so heavily on contract change orders. In the current Direct Loan servicing con-
tract, change orders are used to require servicers to take specic actions, for example to require
servicers to conduct outreach to borrowers who must provide updated income information to
remain in an income-driven repayment plan, but at a cost to the taxpayer. Servicing standards
would reduce the need for these ad hoc contract changes, which are more expensive and dicult
for servicers to implement than if built into the contract requirements up front. With common
servicing standards, contract oversight would be easier for Education to conduct because both the
servicer and Education would have clear, written guidance describing expectations.
Recommendations
Education should establish guidance on minimum standards specifying how servicers should
handle decisions with signicant nancial implications (e.g., payment application across loans,
prioritizing repayment plans, and use of deferment and forbearance options), minimum contact
requirements, standard monthly statements, and timeframes for completing certain activities
(e.g., processing forms or correcting specic account issues). Treasury applauds the required use
of Education branding on servicing materials in the new Direct Loan servicing procurement to
reduce borrower confusion.
Student Loan Borrower Communication
In the federal student loan program, servicers under contract with Education begin contacting
borrowers directly following the disbursement of the borrower’s rst loan and will continue to
contact the borrower at minimum on a quarterly basis while the borrower is in school and on a
monthly basis while the borrower is in repayment. Federal student loan servicers rely heavily on
U.S. mail, phone calls, and email to communicate with borrowers.
When loans enter repayment, borrowers generally create an online account with their student
loan servicer. At this point, the servicer may receive the borrowers’ email address for the rst time
as borrowers are not required to provide this information while applying for federal nancial aid.
Federal student loan servicers employ emails that many borrowers and consumer advocates feel are
of limited utility as they often contain messages similar to, “A new message is available on your
online account,” rather than more substantive emails.
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Federal student loan servicing also lacks e-signature capability, creating unnecessary cost and inef-
ciency for federal student loan servicers. Without e-signature, borrowers must access computers,
nd forms online, print physical copies of documents, sign those documents, then send those
documents by mail, for processing and scanning in a servicer mail facility. is adds several steps
for borrowers. To more successfully receive forms back from borrowers, some student loan servicers
have mailed borrowers prepopulated forms and included an addressed and stamped envelope.
e expense that servicers incur in using the U.S. mail for is signicant relative to the monthly
compensation federal student loan servicers receive per borrower. E-signature technology could
expedite the process of completing forms and help borrowers more responsibly manage their stu-
dent loan accounts, while reducing servicer costs. A reduction in servicer costs could also yield
savings to the U.S. taxpayer in the form of lower servicer contract costs.
Recommendations
In Education’s new Direct Loan servicing contract, Education should require student loan servicers
to make greater use of emails and provide guidance to servicers on how to use email appropriately
to balance privacy and security concerns with the need for eective and timely communication.
All emails sent to federal student loan borrowers should provide enough information for borrow-
ers to easily discern whether action must be taken on their account. Education should contract
with providers of secure e-signature software and cloud technology for use by federal student loan
servicers on all forms.
Data Quality
With a $1.4 trillion federal student loan portfolio, it is critical that Education monitor and manage
the taxpayer investment in higher education carefully. Under the existing Direct Loan servicing
contract, servicers maintain the majority of loan level data about the portfolio. Because data about
the student loan portfolio comes from many dierent sources (e.g., borrowers, schools, legacy
lenders and servicers, and nine current servicers), the data is often in incompatible formats and
housed in separate, antiquated systems. is limits Education’s ability to appropriately monitor
trends in performance that should be addressed through servicing changes and manage the federal
student loan portfolio. Further, Education releases very limited data about the performance of the
portfolio. Taxpayers deserve greater insight into how this large investment is performing.
Recommendations
Education must improve its data quality and portfolio management. Education’s Oce of
Federal Student Aid, which operationalizes the $1.4 trillion federal student loan portfolio,
should include in its management team individuals with signicant expertise in managing large
consumer loan portfolios.
Education should take steps to address existing data quality issues to better monitor and
manage portfolio performance. Education should increase transparency by publishing greater
portfolio performance data, servicer performance data, and cost estimation analysis on its
website to give stakeholders greater insight into Education’s management of the taxpayer
investment in higher education.
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Institutional Accountability
Treasury remains concerned about the lack of institutional accountability in student lending.
Colleges and universities have very few accountability requirements related to the performance of
the loans their students receive through the federal student loan program. e existing metric used
by Education, the cohort default rate, does not capture other problematic loan statuses that show
the borrower may be struggling to repay (e.g., signicant delinquencies and extended forbearances)
and the metric is easily gamed by institutions. Treasury analysis of Education data indicates that
principal repayment after ve years is highly predictive of future loan performance. Treasury is
concerned about schools that do not provide student loan borrowers good value, often leading to
indebtedness the borrower cannot repay in a reasonable time period.
Recommendations
Treasury supports legislative eorts to implement a risk-sharing program for institutions partici-
pating in the federal student loan program based on the amount of principal repaid following ve
years of payments. Schools whose students have systematically low loan repayment rates should be
required to repay small amounts of federal dollars to protect taxpayers’ growing investment in the
federal student loan program. Congress should consider how to address schools with systematically
low repayment rates but large populations of disadvantaged students.
Short-Term, Small-Dollar Installment Lending
Overview
Short-term, small-dollar loans, which typically range from $300 to $5,000, account for nearly
$90 billion in annual lending.
363
ese products, oered by nonbank lenders and some depository
institutions, include lump-sum loans, with terms of 1 month or less, as well as installment loans
with terms of up to 2 years. e demand for short-term, small-dollar products is high because
many households struggle with income volatility, thin or no credit les or a subprime score, or
lack of access to mainstream nancial products that meet their needs. According to the FRB, 40%
of Americans say they could not easily cover an emergency expense of $400.
364
FDIC data also
indicates that almost 20% of U.S. households are considered underbanked because of their use of
alternative nancial services.
365
363. See Center for Financial Services Innovation, 2017 Financially Underserved Market Size Study (Dec.
2017), at 44–47, available at: https://s3.amazonaws.com/cfsi-innovation-files-2018/wp-content/
uploads/2017/04/27001546/2017-Market-Size-Report_FINAL_4.pdf (for revenue and volume data on pawn
loans, online payday loans, storefront payday loans, installment loans, title loans, and marketplace personal
loans).
364.
Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Report on the Economic Well-Being of U.S. Households
in 2017 (May 2018), at 21-22, available at: https://www.federalreserve.gov/publications/files/2017-report-eco-
nomic-well-being-us-households-201805.pdf.
Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Report on the Economic Well-Being of U.S. Households
in 2016 (May 2017), at 26-27, available at: https://www.federalreserve.gov/publications/files/2016-report-eco-
nomic-well-being-us-households-201705.pdf.
365.
Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, 2015 FDIC National Survey of Unbanked and Underbanked
Households (Oct. 20, 2016), available at: https://www.fdic.gov/householdsurvey/.
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Regulatory Framework Regulatory Framework
Nonbank, short-term, small-dollar lenders are regulated at both the federal and state levels. At
the federal level, Dodd-Frank authorized the Bureau to supervise nondepository covered persons
oering or providing payday loans to consumers for compliance with federal consumer protection
laws.
366
As noted previously, the Bureau also has authority to prohibit certain acts or practices that
are unfair, deceptive, or abusive.
State laws set product feature limitations and may require licensing of nonbank lenders to make
loans in the state. Based on the product (e.g., payday or installment), product feature restrictions
may include loan size caps, interest rate limits, repetitive use restrictions, and even outright prohi-
bitions. ese restrictions are often enforced by state banking agencies or state attorneys general.
According to the National Conference of State Legislatures, 37 states have laws allowing payday
lending in some form. irteen states have prohibited payday lending outright.
Banks providing short-term, small-dollar loans may be regulated by state or federal law, depending
on the type of bank. Prudential regulators and the Bureau have authority to evaluate these product
oerings for compliance with federal consumer protection laws. Additionally, as depository insti-
tutions, banks oering these products must meet safety and soundness requirements.
Issues and Recommendations
In November 2017, the Bureau issued a nal rule entitled “Payday, Vehicle Title, and Certain
High Cost Loans” (Payday Rule) that applies to lenders that extend credit with terms of 45 days
or less as well as longer-term credit with balloon payments (Covered Loans).
367
Lenders making
Covered Loans are required to determine that the borrower has the ability to repay the loan. is
ability to repay is based on a determination that the consumer can make payments on the loan and
still meet major nancial obligations and basic living expenses without needing to re-borrow over
the next 30 days. When underwriting a Covered Loan, the lender is required to obtain and verify
the consumer’s net income and nancial obligations and ensure that the loan will not result in
the consumer having a sequence of more than three Covered Loans within 30 days of each other.
A failure to comply with the ability to repay underwriting standard is an unfair and/or abusive
practice. In January 2018, the Bureau announced its intention to engage in further rulemaking to
reconsider the Payday Rule.
e Bureau’s rule raises two primary concerns. First, states maintain authority to regulate short-
term, small-dollar lending, which raises questions regarding the need for additional federal regula-
tion. In 2016, the House Financial Services Committee held a hearing to evaluate the Bureau’s
proposed Payday Rule and its interaction with state authority. Testimony highlighted the extensive
action taken by states to pass laws authorizing, restricting or prohibiting payday lending. Similarly,
in 2016, a bipartisan group of 16 state attorneys general sent a letter to then Bureau Director
Cordray cautioning him against restricting state authorities by moving forward with the Payday
Rule. Specically, these attorneys general highlighted how states were best positioned to regulate
366. 12 U.S.C. § 5514(a)(1)(E).
3 67. Payday, Vehicle Title, and Certain High-Cost Installment Loans (Oct. 5, 2017) [82 Fed. Reg. 54472 (Nov. 17,
2017)].
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these sometimes high-priced products, and to understand the credit and consumer protection
needs of the consumers in their states.
Second, the Payday Rule would further restrict consumer access to credit and decrease product
choices. According to the Bureau’s estimates, the Payday Rule would reduce overall payday loan
volume by as much as two-thirds.
368
is reduction in access to regulated, short-term, small-dollar
loans may leave these consumers vulnerable to dangerous alternatives such as unscrupulous, unli-
censed, oshore or otherwise illegal lenders.
369
is is especially true as short-term, small-dollar
lending activity has been largely pushed out of the traditional banking system.
Banks can operate as additional sources of credit for consumers who otherwise may be unbanked or
underbanked and lead to “a path to more mainstream nancial products.”
370
However, in 2013, the
OCC and FDIC issued guidance on direct deposit advance products, which identied supervisory
risks with the oering of these products.
371
Following the release of the guidance, banks withdrew
these products from the market. Stakeholder feedback highlighted that the low margin and height-
ened maintenance of these products did not oset the increased regulatory scrutiny. is outcome
further restricted short-term, small-dollar lending from the traditional banking system.
Last year, the OCC recognized the consumer demand for these products. In October 2017, the
OCC rescinded its guidance because “consumers who would prefer to rely on banks and thrifts
for these products may be forced to rely on less regulated lenders and be exposed to the risk of
consumer harm and expense.”
372
e OCC has also issued a bulletin providing guidance to OCC-
supervised banks on core lending principles for short-term, small-dollar installment lending.
373
e FDIC has yet to rescind its previous guidance.
Recommendations
Treasury recognizes and supports the broad authority of states that have established comprehensive
product restrictions and licensing requirements on nonbank short-term, small-dollar installment
lenders and their products. As a result, Treasury believes additional federal regulation is unneces-
sary and recommends the Bureau rescind its Payday Rule.
Additionally, Treasury recommends that federal and state nancial regulators take steps to encour-
age sustainable and responsible short-term, small-dollar installment lending by banks. Specically,
368. Id. at 54817.
369. Sudhir Venkatesh, Off the Books: The Underground Economy of the Urban Poor (2006); Todd J. Zywicki,
Mercatus Center, The Case Against New Restrictions on Payday Lending, working paper (July 2009), available
at: https://www.mercatus.org/system/files/WP0928_Payday-Lending.pdf.
370.
Office of the Comptroller of the Currency, Core Lending Principles for Short-Term, Small-Dollar Installment
Lending
, OCC Bulletin 2018-14 (May 23, 2018), available at: https://www.occ.treas.gov/news-issuances/bul-
letins/2018/bulletin-2018-14.html (“OCC Core Lending Principles”).
371.
Direct Deposit Advance products, offered by banks, are a “small-dollar, short-term loan or line of credit that a
bank makes available to a customer whose deposit account reflects recurring direct deposits.” Rescission of
Guidance on Supervisory Concerns and Expectations Regarding Deposit Advance Products (Oct. 5, 2017) [82
Fed. Reg. 47602 (Oct. 12, 2017)].
372. Id.
373. OCC Core Lending Principles.
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Treasury recommends that the FDIC reconsider its guidance on direct deposit advance services
and issue new guidance similar to the OCC’s core lending principles for short-term, small-dollar
installment lending.
Debt Collection
Debt collectors and debt buyers are important market participants for the continued functioning
of the consumer credit markets and other industries that rely on the recoveries from debt collec-
tion or the sale of delinquent debt to minimize losses.
374
Debt collectors can be segmented into
two categories: rst-party debt collectors and third-party debt collectors. By reducing losses from
unpaid balances, debt collectors and debt buyers increase eciency in the consumer credit markets
through the reduced cost of credit, which can yield greater access to credit.
Issues and Recommendations
e Fair Debt Collection Practices Act (FDCPA), was enacted in 1977 to eliminate abusive,
deceptive, and unfair conduct by third-party debt collectors working to collect consumer debt
incurred primarily for personal, family, or household purposes, thereby excluding business,
corporate, or agricultural debt.
375
Dodd-Frank provided the Bureau rulemaking authority for
the FDCPA, as well as supervision and enforcement authority for the entities under the Bureau’s
jurisdiction.
376
e Bureau’s supervision manual for the FDCPA makes clear that an institution
is not considered a debt collector under the FDCPA, “when it collects: another’s debts in isolated
instances; its own debts it originated under its own name; debts it originated and then sold, but
continues to service (e.g., mortgage and student loans); debts that were not in default when they
were obtained; and debts that were obtained as security for a commercial credit transaction.”
377
ese exclusions from the FDCPA allow creditors who have originated the debt (rst-party
debt collectors) to attempt recovery on that debt without the restrictions and potential liability
associated with the FDCPA.
Debt collectors and debt buyers are of continued interest to policymakers, as they are frequently
the source of consumer complaints and yielded one of the most frequent types of consumer com-
plaints of any industry to both the Federal Trade Commission (FTC)
378
and the Bureau
379
in the
374. The majority of debt collected is related to healthcare, student loans, and debt owed to state, local, and fed-
eral governments. See Ernst & Young, The Impact of Third-Party Debt Collection on the US National and State
Economies in 2016 (Nov. 2017), at 5, available at: https://www.acainternational.org/assets/ernst-young/ey-
2017-aca-state-of-the-industry-report-final-5.pdf.
375.
Bureau of Consumer Financial Protection, Fair Debt Collection Practices Act Supervision Manual (Oct. 2012),
available at: https://s3.amazonaws.com/files.consumerfinance.gov/f/documents/102012_cfpb_fair-debt-collec-
tions-practices-act-fdcpa_procedures.pdf (“FDCPA Supervision Manual”).
376.
Dodd-Frank §§ 1002(12)(H), 1024(b)-(c), and 1025(b)-(c) [12 U.S.C.§§ 5481(12)(H), 5514(c), and 5515(c)].
377. FDCPA Supervision Manual, at 1.
378. Federal Trade Commission, Consumer Sentinel Network Data Book 2017 (Mar. 2018), at 4, available at:
https://www.ftc.gov/system/files/documents/reports/consumer-sentinel-network-data-book-2017/consumer_
sentinel_data_book_2017.pdf.
379.
Bureau data from Consumer Complaint Database, available at: https://www.consumerfinance.gov/data-
research/consumer-complaints/ (filtered for complaints received during 2017).
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last year. Stakeholders representing a variety of interests, including consumer advocates, lenders,
debt collectors and debt buyers, and the FTC, have expressed concerns about the adequacy of
information transferred with the sale of debt to third-party debt collectors. Data provided by
industry indicates there is an ineciency in this market as well. According to a survey of debt
collectors and buyers, consumers request verication on nearly one in ve accounts referred to
debt collectors, with approximately 10% of consumers ling a formal dispute.
380
While FTC
data shows fewer disputes, the FTC reports that debt buyers indicate they are only able to verify
about half of the debts that consumers dispute, demonstrating that debt buyers are not receiving
sucient information about the debt to prove to the consumer that the debt they are attempting
to collect is valid.
381
In 2013, the Bureau published an advance notice of proposed rulemaking on debt collection
practices.
382
In the proposal, the Bureau indicated concern about the amount of information
that is transferred with a debt when it is sold to a third-party collector, and requested comment
on what type of information should be provided in three critical areas and the adequacy of that
information: (1) the correct person; (2) the correct amount owed; and (3) the correct docu-
mentation provided with the debt.
383
To date, the Bureau has not issued a notice of proposed
rulemaking following the 2013 proposal. In the absence of minimum federal standards for the
information creditors must provide to debt collectors and buyers, certain companies and trade
groups have committed to higher standards for this information prior to debt collection or sale.
Additionally, some states have enacted laws concerning data quality standards for debt buyers
and required disclosures. For example, California law prohibits debt buyers from contacting
consumers about a debt unless it possesses information about the debt balance, date of default,
and original creditor. Illinois, Texas, and New York statutes require disclosure of specic infor-
mation to consumers by debt collectors.
Recommendation
Treasury recommends the Bureau establish minimum eective federal standards governing the
collection of debt by third-party debt collectors. Specically, these standards should address the
information that is transferred with a debt for purposes of debt collection or in a sale of the debt.
Further, the Bureau should determine whether the existing FDCPA standards for validation letters
to consumers should be expanded to help the consumer assess whether the debt is owed and
determine an appropriate response to collection attempts.
Treasury does not support broad expansion of the FDCPA to rst-party debt collectors absent
further Congressional consideration of such action.
380. Ernst and Young, at 5.
381. Federal Trade Commission, The Structure and Practices of the Debt Buying Industry (Jan. 2013), at iv, avail-
able at: https://www.ftc.gov/sites/default/files/documents/reports/structure-and-practices-debt-buying-industry/
debtbuyingreport.pdf.
382.
Debt Collection (Regulation F) (Nov. 5, 2013) [78 Fed. Reg. 67848 (Nov. 12, 2013)].
383. Id.
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IRS Income Verification
Overview
e federal government plays a role not only supporting policies that advance the prudent applica-
tion of nancial technology in credit markets, but also, at times, by furnishing information integral
to the consumer and small business underwriting process itself. In this capacity, the government
needs to take care that it is not inhibiting innovation in practice that it supports in policy. One
commonly cited credit industry challenge is the interaction with IRS’s income verication system,
including the lack of an interface, such as an Application Programming Interface (API), to perform
this function in an automated fashion.
As part of assessing a loan applicant’s nancial capacity for assuming a credit obligation, lenders
for consumer and small business credit often request that a loan applicant provide tax return
information to verify income information submitted by the applicant. For some credit decisions,
such as mortgages, lenders perform income verication to adhere to regulatory requirements to
assess a borrower’s ability to repay the debt. For other classes of credit, particularly those served
by marketplace lenders, income verication is an important credit risk assessment tool as it helps
develop a more complete picture of a borrower’s overall risk assessment and the likelihood for that
borrower to be able to fulll the terms of the loan.
384
Lenders assess nancial capacity using a range of information and tools. Some information is
provided directly by the borrower. Other information is provided by third parties, some of which
requires the consent of the borrower before such information can be provided to the lender. For
credit decisions, loan terms are largely determined by applicant-submitted information and data
purchased from private credit bureaus that document the credit histories of millions of Americans.
Ocial tax return documentation obtained pursuant to authorization provided by the borrower
is a critical source of information and is used by lenders to verify that loans comply with existing
regulations (e.g., the Ability to Repay/Qualied Mortgage rule) and to conrm information pro-
vided by the borrower during the underwriting process. Lenders generally determine a borrower’s
creditworthiness before utilizing ocial income data, due in part to challenges with quickly and
securely obtaining tax return information from the IRS once the borrower authorizes the IRS to
disclose such information to the lender.
Issues and Recommendations
In the present system, a credit applicant facilitates income verication by completing a request for
a copy of his or her tax transcripts through IRS Forms 4506, 4506-T, 4506T-EZ, or 8821 through
the IRS.
385
rough these forms, a borrower gives consent for the IRS to disclose his or her sum-
marized tax transcript to a third party.
386
Lenders often utilize third-party vendors to process these
384. See Marketplace Lending Association, Update the IRS 4506-T API, available at: http://marketplacelendingas-
sociation.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Build-an-API-for-the-IRS-4506-T-.pdf.
385.
See IRS Income Verification Express Service at https://www.irs.gov/individuals/international-taxpayers/
income-verification-express-service.
386.
Federal law prohibits disclosure or use of federal tax return information except as authorized by that title. See
26 U.S.C. § 6103. Violations are subject to criminal penalty. Federal law [26 U.S.C. §6103(c)] permits the IRS
to disclose tax return information to third parties with consent of the taxpayer.
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transcript requests. To protect the condentiality of federal tax return information, third-party
vendors must meet strict security and technology requirements set by the IRS.
e IRS typically processes transcript requests submitted through its Income Verication Express
Service and provides borrower tax summary data to the authorized third party within two to
three days, although lenders report it can take considerably longer during periods of high volume.
Credit decisions can be delayed pending receipt. Given the millions of credit transactions that
depend on IRS verication, delays in this process may impose added costs on borrowers and the
economy from the collective delays in completing these transactions. In a nancial system increas-
ingly adopting real-time information transfer and access to borrower bank and asset proles, the
delay in receiving IRS income verication can be particularly frustrating for lenders and borrowers.
e IRS currently fullls 4506-T requests by transmitting borrower tax summary data to an
authorized third party’s secure mailbox. In other data aggregation situations, such as gathering
borrower bank balances, lenders are able to obtain the needed borrower nancial information
through an API to instantaneously and safely transfer data. However, for lenders to gather federal
tax data, they must rely on slower IRS verication technology that lacks the key type of digital
interface enabled by an API. Given existing IRS priorities and funding levels, developing such a
digital interface capability at the IRS would require multiple levels of front-end as well as back-end
enhancements, including development of an e-signature capability and an authorization solution.
Enabling faster, more reliable income verication could facilitate lenders’ ability to better incor-
porate historical income data earlier into credit pricing, as opposed to using it for verication
purposes at the back-end of the underwriting process. Further, this data could potentially expand
access to credit by providing lenders a broader view into a credit applicant’s creditworthiness,
where an otherwise incomplete credit picture, or on-the-border credit score, could lead a lender to
decline an applicant. is is particularly true for small businesses, as it could improve the ability to
consolidate debts incurred on personal credit cards into a consolidated business loan, as a lender
would be able to more immediately analyze income history and observe patterns of growth that
indicate creditworthiness.
Recommendation
It is important that the IRS update its income verication system to leverage a modern, technology-
driven interface that protects taxpayer information and enables automated and secure data sharing
with lenders or designated third parties. Such an interface would bring a critical component of
the credit process up to speed with broader innovations in nancial technology. Borrowers, and
the broader economy, stand to benet through lower operational costs for lenders, elimination
of paperwork and delays, incorporation of important credit information into credit pricing, and
potentially expanded access to credit as tax information can be more easily incorporated into deter-
minations of creditworthiness. Any changes must balance faster access with security controls that
ensure that only information that borrowers choose to share with lenders is shared, that lenders
and vendors have security controls in place to protect taxpayer data, and that signicant security
protections are put into place to protect sensitive taxpayer information.
While the IRS is working to update its technology, including technology used by lenders for income
verication, these eorts are dependent on funding in light of other IRS mission-critical priorities.
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Treasury recommends Congress fund IRS modernization, which would include upgrades that will
support more ecient income verication.
New Credit Models and Data
Overview
U.S. nancial institutions have traditionally relied upon a common set of credit information for
purposes of extending consumer credit. is generally standardized credit data, which consists
primarily of consumer debt and payment history, is consolidated by national credit bureaus and
is fed into a common set of credit models which generate consumer credit scores that are widely
used across U.S. nancial institutions. One of the most dominant existing credit score models is
the one used by FICO to generate the widely used FICO score, which is reportedly used by some
90% of top lenders.
387
With the explosion in available data and advances in modeling methods, a growing number of
rms — existing and new entrants — have begun to use or explore a wide range of newer data
sets or advanced algorithms (including those based upon machine-learning practices) to support
credit underwriting decisions. is interest in newer data and models has taken place across the
unsecured consumer, small business lending, and mortgage lending segments.
e types of data being considered may dier signicantly in their apparent relationship to
traditional credit criteria. Some data are considered more proximate because they provide more
meaningful information on the credit prole of borrowers (e.g., utility and rental payments), while
3 87. See Mercator Advisory Group, Press Release – FICO
®
Scores Used in over 90% of Lending
Decisions According to New Study (Feb. 27, 2018), available at: http://paymentsjournal.com/
fico-scores-used-90-lending-decisions-according-new-study/.
Potential to enable greater access to credit
Traditional credit models
Alternative credit models
Commonly used alternative data
Rent history
Utility and cell phone bills
Employment history
Property ownership
Phone number and address stability
Nontraditional alternative data
Social media
Browsing history
Behavioral data
Shopping patterns
Data about consumers’ friends
and associates
Figure 22: T
ypes of Credit Data
Traditional credit data
Lines of credit
Utilizations rate
Length of credit history
Loan payment history
Credit mix
Note: Represents select examples from comment letters to CFPB regarding use of alternative data and modeling technologies in
credit process by Equifax, TransUnion, American Bankers Association, Consumer Bankers Association, FICO, Independent
Community Bankers Association, and California Nevada Credit Union League.
Source: CFPB public comment file. See Robinson + Yu, Knowing the Score: New Data, Underwriting, and Marketing in the
Consumer Credit Marketplace (Oct. 29, 2014), at 15.
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other data sources’ relationship to credit risk may be less apparent (e.g., technology usage patterns,
social networking information and website tracking).
e types of credit models also vary meaningfully, for example, by the degree to which rms
employ machine learning based algorithms. Some of the new credit models are largely based upon
existing modeling approaches but with new forms of data that closely approximate other credit
data, while other rms may employ both new modeling approaches (i.e., machine learning) and
some of the newest forms of data (e.g., technology use patterns). ese newer credit models could
be used by rms on a proprietary basis to underwrite borrowers for their own businesses, or could
also be used by rms to generate a credit score product that could be sold to other rms for their
loan underwriting processes.
Nonbank nancial rms, such as marketplace lenders, generally report greater use of less-traditional
data sources and newer modeling approaches, including ones based upon machine learning. Such
lenders may rely upon new data sources to support the underwriting of loans through authenticating
borrowers’ identity online, assessing borrower default risk, and reducing instances of fraud. e pro-
vision of such scoring information also allows such lenders to often extend credit to borrowers below
traditional FICO score thresholds or with little FICO score information.
388
Various new credit scor-
ing companies have also formed that are generally more active in leveraging these new data sources,
though the degree to which some might employ machine-learning models can vary substantially.
389
Issues and Recommendations
ese approaches have the potential to enable greater access to credit and improve the quality
of nancial products. However, the applications of these more novel approaches raise important
policy considerations.
Opportunities to Expand and Improve Access to Credit
ere are potential opportunities to expand access to credit for borrowers: (1) consumers who
have thin credit les or no credit les (up to 45 million U.S. adults)
390
with the consumer credit
bureaus, and (2) small businesses, which are important engines of the economy and job creation.
For example, a 2017 study found some evidence that the use of “alternative” credit data has allowed
consumers with more limited traditional credit proles (i.e., based on FICO scores) to access cred-
it.
391
Additional information on credit card usage, such as whether consumers are carrying balances
388. See Letter from the Online Lenders Alliance to the Bureau of Consumer Financial Protection, Response to
Request for Information Regarding Use of Alternative Data Modeling Techniques in the Credit Process;
Records Docket No.: CFPB-2017-0005 (May 19, 2017), available at: https://www.regulations.gov/document?
D=CFPB-2017-0005-0071.
389.
Mikella Hurly and Julius Adebayo, Credit Scoring in the Era of Big Data, 18 Yale J. L. & Tech. 148 (2016) (table
1).
390.
See Office of Research, Bureau of Consumer Financial Protection, Data Point: Credit Invisibles (May 2015),
at 12, available at: http://files.consumerfinance.gov/f/201505_cfpb_data-point-credit-invisibles.pdf (“Credit
Invisibles Report”).
391.
Julapa Jagtiani and Catharine Lemieux, Fintech Lending: Financial Inclusion, Risk Pricing, and Alternative
Information, Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia working paper (July 6, 2017), at 9-12, available at: https://
www.philadelphiafed.org/-/media/research-and-data/publications/working-papers/2017/wp17-17.pdf.
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month over month on their credit cards or paying in full, can also improve credit risk analysis. At
the same time, some groups have raised the concern that expanding the use of certain data (e.g.,
rent, utility, telecom payments) for persons that already have a FICO score could result in reduced
credit availability.
392
e use of alternative credit data can provide consumers an on-ramp into the
nancial services landscape. For example, FICO recently launched another credit score product
designed to provide credit applicants a “second chance” score, to be used where the applicant has
no traditional FICO score. e new score provides a means to assess consumers with thin credit
reports who could not be scored without additional information. FICO found that using its “sec-
ond chance” score, more than a third of such applicants had FICO scores above 620. Moreover,
for applicants with scores above 620 and that access credit, more than two-thirds reported FICO
scores of 660 or higher two years later.
393
Several rms that are actively deploying these approaches in consumer and small business lending
report signicant improvements in loss rates, which suggests some improvements in modeling
approaches. For example, rms anecdotally report: (1) double-digit improvements in approval
rates and declines in loss rates from using machine learning techniques on existing available data
sources for lenders (that is, their own data, but with improved analysis); and (2) that some of the
nontraditional data sources provide predictive value that is comparable to the traditional credit-
data, which can indicate either strong proxy relationships with traditional credit-data or other
important information not available to existing credit data sets. It should be noted, however, that
the timeframe of these favorable results is limited and does not reect performance through a
credit cycle.
e Bureau has also highlighted the potential benets in these approaches to data and model-
ing. e Bureau launched a no-action letter program as part of its Project Catalyst, launched in
November 2012, to facilitate consumer-friendly innovations. Specically, the Bureau was looking
to explore how “alternative data” and the use of emerging technologies like machine learning,
could improve credit decisions.
394
Consumer Protections and Compliance
Firms looking to use alternative data and more advanced algorithms must navigate compliance
with several areas of consumer protection law, including: (1) the Fair Credit Reporting Act
(FCRA) of 1970, which is designed to make sure that credit reporting agencies that sell data
for certain decision-making purposes maintain accurate data, provide consumers access to and
the ability to correct their data, and that such data is used only for permissible activities; (2) fair
lending laws, including the Equal Credit Opportunity Act and the Fair Housing Act, which are
392. Letter from National Consumer Law Center et al., Comments in Response to Request for Information
Regarding Use of Alternative Data and Modeling Techniques in the Credit Process, Docket No. CFPB-2017-
0005 (May 19, 2017), at 3-4, available at: https://www.regulations.gov/document?D=CFPB-2017-0005-0097.
393.
Letter from Fair Isaac Corporation, Request for Information Regarding the Use of Alternative Data and
Modeling Techniques in the Credit Process – Docket No. CFPB-2017-0005 (May 19, 2017), at 9, available at:
https://www.regulations.gov/document?D=CFPB-2017-0005-0080.
394.
Bureau of Consumer Financial Protection, CFPB Announces First No-Action Letter to Upstart
Network (Sept. 14, 2017), available at: https://www.consumerfinance.gov/about-us/newsroom/
cfpb-announces-first-no-action-letter-upstart-network/.
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designed to prohibit discrimination on the basis of various protected categories; (3) the Federal
Trade Commission (FTC) Act, which prohibits unfair or deceptive acts or practices (UDAP) in or
aecting commerce; and (4) the Bureau’s authority with respect to unfair, deceptive or abusive acts
and practices (UDAAP).
e FCRA requires that consumers be provided adverse action notices if they are denied credit
or charged more as the result of their consumer report information. is requirement, among
other factors, may represent challenges for market participants that are seeking to innovate by
incorporating additional data sources into the credit underwriting process.
New models and data may also unintentionally run the risk of producing results that arguably risk
violating fair-lending laws if they result in a “disparate impact” on a protected class
395
or because
the FTC or the Bureau might nd the use of such models and data to be a violation of UDAP or
UDAAP, respectively.
Model Validation and Reliability
Existing regulatory guidance on credit models
396
may need to be tailored to incorporate issues
raised by alternative data or machine learning based models. As an example, applying tradition-
ally accepted practices of model validation and back-testing may be challenging when models are
constantly “learning” and producing potentially new results on a continual basis.
e data available today signicantly exceeds the data available during past credit cycles. Machine
learning based models that require signicant amounts of data would generally suer from the
absence of past credit-cycle data to “train” the model.
Data Quality and Privacy
Alternative data sources may not be as reliable as traditional sources. Banks active in consumer
lending, for example, report that vendors of “alternative data” may not always know the source
of their own data, which would present material compliance risks if such data were to be used for
395. Carol Evans, Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Keeping Fintech Fair: Thinking about Fair
Lending and UDAP Risks, Consumer Compliance Outlook (2017), available at: https://consumercomplian-
ceoutlook.org/assets/2017/second-issue/ccoi22017.pdf?la=en.
396.
See Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Guidance on Model Risk Management, SR Letter
11-7 (Apr. 4, 2011), available at: https://www.federalreserve.gov/supervisionreg/srletters/sr1107.htm; Office
of the Comptroller of the Currency, Credit Scoring Models, OCC Bulletin 1997-24 (May 20, 1997), available
at: https://www.occ.treas.gov/news-issuances/bulletins/1997/bulletin-1997-24.html; Office of the Comptroller
of the Currency, Sound Practices for Model Risk Management, OCC Bulletin 2011-12 (Apr. 4, 2011), avail-
able at: https://www.occ.gov/news-issuances/bulletins/2011/bulletin-2011-12.html; Federal Deposit Insurance
Corporation, Supervisory Insights – Model Governance (last updated Dec. 5, 2005, available at: https://www.
fdic.gov/regulations/examinations/supervisory/insights/siwin05/article01_model_governance.html; Federal
Deposit Insurance Corporation, Supervisory Insights – Fair Lending Implications of Credit Scoring Systems
(last updated Apr. 11, 2013), available at: https://www.fdic.gov/regulations/examinations/supervisory/insights/
sisum05/article03_fair_lending.html.
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eligibility and credit decisions.
397
e prevalence of errors from such data is not currently known,
though even traditional credit bureau information may have meaningful rates of errors.
398
Recommendations
Treasury recognizes that these new credit models and data sources have the potential to meaning-
fully expand access to credit and the quality of nancial services. Treasury therefore recommends
that federal and state nancial regulators further enable the testing of these newer credit models
and data sources by both banks and nonbank nancial companies.
Regulators, through interagency coordination wherever possible, should tailor regulation and
guidance to enable the increased use of these models and data sources by reducing uncertainties.
In particular, regulators should provide regulatory clarity for the use of new data and modeling
approaches that are generally recognized as providing predictive value consistent with applicable
law for use in credit decisions.
Regulators should in general be willing to recognize and value innovation in credit modelling
approaches. Such approaches can create more robust risk management environments and improve
both the cost and access to credit. Regulators should enable prudent experimentation with the aim
of working through various issues raised, which may in turn require new approaches to supervision
and oversight.
Given that consumers without credit scores tend to make regular monthly payments to telecom,
utility, or rental companies and may benet from the reporting of these elds, Treasury supports
continued industry eorts to capture this type of additional consumer credit data through regular
reporting to the consumer credit bureaus. Similarly, Treasury supports eorts to report monthly
credit card payment amounts to the consumer credit bureaus to provide an additional level of
granularity into consumer credit utilization.
Credit Bureaus
Overview
e consumer credit bureaus are essential to the functioning of consumer credit markets in the
United States. Credit bureaus have not only become a vital resource for nancial market par-
ticipants such as lenders and servicers, but are also increasingly relied upon by property manage-
ment companies and employers. Credit bureaus collect, store, and analyze consumer nancial
data including repayment history, outstanding debt, and other factors to produce a prole of a
consumer’s credit history. Today, about 189 million American consumers have credit reports with
3 97. Letter from Consumer Bankers Association, Response of the Consumer Bankers Association to the Request
for Information Regarding Use of Alternative Data and Modeling Techniques in the Credit Process (Docket
No. CFPB-2017-0005) (May 19, 2017), at 9, available at: https://www.regulations.gov/document?D=C
FPB-2017-0005-0073.
398.
See, e.g., Bureau of Consumer Financial Protection, Supervisory Highlights Consumer Reporting Special
Edition (Winter 2017), available at: https://files.consumerfinance.gov/f/documents/201703_cfpb_Supervisory-
Highlights-Consumer-Reporting-Special-Edition.pdf.
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sucient information for the calculation of a credit score.
399
Credit bureaus also maintain les on
another 19 million Americans who are considered “unscorable” due to insucient information.
400
In total, nearly 210 million Americans rely on the three major consumer credit bureaus to accu-
rately reect their credit histories so that this history can be used by credit scorers and nancial
institutions to model credit risk, determine eligibility for credit, and establish the price of that
credit. ese entities collect signicant amounts of personal and nancial data about consumers,
and, as a result, have a statutory requirement to protect consumer information in their possession.
Regulatory Treatment
Credit bureaus are subject to federal and state regulation for consumer protection purposes. At
the federal level, credit bureaus are subject to the FCRA, which governs how credit bureaus col-
lect information regarding consumers, use the information, and share the information with third
parties.
401
In 2012, the Bureau, using its “larger participants” authority, began supervising the
largest credit bureaus for compliance with federal consumer nancial protection laws.
402
Prior to
2012, credit bureaus were not routinely supervised at the federal level.
Credit bureaus must safeguard personal nancial information and are subject to statutory data
security standards. e FTC has actively used its authority to enforce data security provisions
under Section 5 of the FTC Act
403
and pursuant to the FTC’s “Safeguards Rule,”
404
which the
FTC implemented under authority granted to it by section 501(b) of the Gramm-Leach-Bliley
Act (GLBA).
405
While GLBA granted FTC rulemaking and enforcement authority regarding the
security and condentiality of customer information, GLBA did not grant FTC authority to con-
duct supervision of credit bureaus for compliance with GLBA data security standards and privacy
requirements. A similar limitation exists with respect to the Bureau. Dodd-Frank granted the
Bureau supervisory authority with respect to certain requirements of GLBA, including provisions
regarding consumer privacy,
406
but did not grant authority with respect to section 501 of GLBA,
399. Credit Invisibles Report.
400. Id.
401. The FTC website provides a summary of consumer rights under the FCRA, available at https://www.consumer.
ftc.gov/articles/pdf-0096-fair-credit-reporting-act.pdf.
402.
In its final rule [12 C.F.R. part 1090], the Bureau defined the consumer reporting market to include companies
that collect, analyze, maintain, or provide consumer report or other account information used in a decision by
another person for offering of any consumer financial product or service. At the time, the Bureau’s larger partici-
pants rulemaking for credit reporting covered nearly 30 companies accounting for 94% of annual receipts in the
market. See Defining Larger Participants in Certain Consumer Financial Product and Service Markets (Feb. 8,
2012) [77 Fed. Reg. 9592 (Feb. 17, 2012)].
403.
15 U.S.C. § 45(a); see also Federal Trade Commission, Enforcing Privacy Promises, available at https://www.
ftc.gov/news-events/media-resources/protecting-consumer-privacy/enforcing-privacy-promises (last accessed
June 27, 2018) (listing press releases for FTC enforcement actions relating to privacy).
404.
16 C.F.R. Part 314; see also Standards for Safeguarding Customer Information (May 22, 2002) [67 Fed. Reg.
36484 (May 23, 2002)].
405.
In addition to enforcement actions to stop practices that are harmful to consumers, the FTC engages with
industry participants through reports and educational tools and also conducts policy and legislative work.
406.
See Bureau of Consumer Financial Protection, Privacy of Consumer Financial Information - Gramm-Leach-
Bliley Act (GLBA) Examination Procedures (Oct. 2016), at 1, available at: https://s3.amazonaws.com/files.
consumerfinance.gov/f/documents/102016_cfpb_GLBAExamManualUpdate.pdf.
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which requires regulators to establish standards for the protection of nonpublic personal informa-
tion.
407
As a result, neither the FTC nor the Bureau supervises credit bureaus for compliance with
these GLBA section 501 data security requirements.
Issues and Recommendations
Data Security — Supervision and Enforcement
In July 2017, Equifax noticed suspicious activity on the portal they provide consumers for dispute
resolution and engaged a cybersecurity rm to investigate the suspicious activity.
408
e rm found
that consumers’ personal information was disclosed to unauthorized parties from May 13 to July
30, 2017.
409
In total, almost 150 million consumers’ names, social security numbers, dates of birth,
addresses, gender, phone numbers, driver’s license numbers, and email addresses were breached.
410
Hundreds of thousands of consumers’ credit or debit card information and documents provided
to Equifax by 182,000 customers related to dispute resolutions were breached.
411
is incident has
highlighted the need for greater supervision of the consumer credit bureaus, especially relating to
the protection of nonpublic personal information.
e FTC has deep expertise on privacy and data security for nonbank nancial companies. e
FTC exercises enforcement authority under GLBA with respect to some types of nonbank nancial
companies, including credit bureaus.
412
However, as noted earlier, credit bureaus are not subject to
routine supervision by either the FTC or the Bureau with respect to the requirements implemented
under section 501 of the GLBA for the protection of nonpublic personal information. Given the
sensitive nature of the information credit bureaus collect, the bureaus have a heightened duty to
protect the information they collect.
Recommendations
e FTC should retain its rulemaking and enforcement authority for nonbank nancial companies
under the GLBA. Additionally, Treasury recommends that the relevant agencies use appropriate
authorities to coordinate regulatory actions to protect consumer data held by credit reporting
agencies and that Congress continue to assess whether further authority is needed in this area.
Credit Education and Counseling
In 1996, Congress passed the Credit Repair Organizations Act (CROA) to help protect consumers
against unfair or deceptive advertising and business practices by credit repair organizations. In
4 07. Dodd-Frank § 1002(12)(J).
408. Equifax Inc., Press Release – Equifax Releases Details on Cybersecurity Incident, Announces
Personnel Changes (Sept. 15, 2017), available at: https://www.equifaxsecurity2017.com/2017/09/15/
equifax-releases-details-cybersecurity-incident-announces-personnel-changes/.
409.
Id.
410. Equifax Inc., Form 8-K Current Report (May 4, 2018), available at: https://otp.tools.investis.com/clients/us/equi-
fax/SEC/sec-show.aspx?Type=html&FilingId=12735591&CIK=0000033185&Index=10000.
411.
Id.
412. In recent years, the Bureau has also undertaken enforcement actions in the area of data security, pursuant to its
unfair, deceptive or abusive acts or practices (UDAAP) authority. At present, detailed guidance for compliance
with UDAAP, akin to the FTC’s Safeguards Rule, is not available.
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CROA’s passage, Congress found that credit repair companies were creating economic hardships
for some consumers who had engaged their services and that consumers should be provided with
information to help make an informed decision about the purchase of credit repair services. CROA
denes a credit repair organization as “any person who uses any instrumentality of interstate com-
merce or the mails to sell, provide, or perform (or represent that such person can or will sell, pro-
vide, or perform) any service, in return for the payment of money or other valuable consideration,
for the express or implied purpose of (i) improving any consumer’s credit record, credit history, or
credit rating; or (ii) providing advice or assistance to any consumer with regard to any activity or
service described in clause (i),” with certain exceptions.
413
Under CROA, any entity deemed to be a
credit repair organization is subject to requirements regarding how it may engage with a consumer
and actions it must take before accepting payment for services. e FTC and private plaintis may
bring actions for violations of CROA under a strict liability theory.
Credit repair organizations claim to help consumers improve their credit report and credit score,
often by indicating they can assist in removing negative, unfair, or inaccurate credit information
from consumer credit reports, with some companies falsely claiming that their years of expertise or
relationship with the consumer credit bureaus will result in a more favorable outcome than if the
consumer pursued removing inaccurate information on their own. Generally, these credit repair
services are oered at a signicant cost to the consumer. It is important to note that under existing
law, consumers can receive a free credit report from each of the three national credit bureaus on
an annual basis and can work directly with each of the credit bureaus to dispute any inaccurate
information found in their credit report. Regardless of whether a consumer engages with the credit
bureau or a credit repair company, accurate, negative credit information cannot be removed from
the consumer’s credit report.
Recently, credit bureaus, including the three largest bureaus, have expanded their oerings of credit
and nancial education services directly to consumers. ese services generally do not involve specic
action taken by the credit bureau to repair or change a credit report or score, but instead provide
advice and education on how to address behavior or issues that inuence consumers’ credit proles.
In Stout v. Freescore, LLC, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit held that Freescore,
an online provider of credit scores, reports, and consumer credit information, was a “credit repair
organization” under CROA.
414
e court reasoned that, in order to fall within the denition of
“credit repair organization” under CROA, a person need not actually provide a service aimed
at improving a consumer’s credit record, history, or rating, as long as it represents that it can or
will provide such a service. Consequently, since Freescore “armatively represents that its services
can or will improve, or help to improve, a consumer’s credit record, history, or rating,” the court
held that it fell within CROA’s denition of a credit repair organization.
415
e decision in Stout
v. Freescore troubled credit bureaus and credit scorers oering credit counseling services because
those services aim to help consumers prospectively improve their credit scores, potentially exposing
these rms to legal liability under CROA. e court’s interpretation of CROA’s scope creates a risk
413. 15 U.S.C. § 1679a.
414. Stout v. Freescore, L.L.C., 743 F.3d 680, 681-85 (9th Cir. 2014).
415.
Id. at 685-86.
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that these companies, which have valuable insight to provide consumers, will limit their credit
counseling oerings.
While the credit bureaus and credit scoring companies can and do oer limited consumer credit
counseling services, CROA inhibits innovation by unduly restricting legitimate product oerings.
For example, CROA requires a three-day waiting period from the time a consumer signs up for
credit counseling services with a credit repair organization to the time the consumer receives the
service, and prohibits credit repair organizations from collecting payment for the performance of
any service until the entirety of that service is completed. Further, CROA includes strict liability
and private right of action provisions that have discouraged legitimate entities like consumer credit
bureaus and credit scorers from providing greater credit counseling oerings due to concerns about
potential liability under CROA.
Innovation and modernization of credit education and counseling are important developments to
ensure consumers become sophisticated and responsible borrowers. While the proper application of
CROA provides valuable consumer protections, CROA’s expansive denition of “credit repair orga-
nization” has unnecessarily restricted entities with signicant expertise in consumer credit (such as
credit bureaus and credit scorers) from oering consumer credit education and counseling products.
Recommendations
Treasury recommends that Congress amend CROA to exclude the national credit bureaus and
national credit scorers (i.e., credit scoring companies utilized by nancial institutions when mak-
ing credit decisions) from the denition of “credit repair organization” in CROA.
InsurTech
As the broader nancial services sector invests heavily in technology, digitally enabled advances
across the insurance industry have come to be known as “InsurTech.” InsurTech is a broad
term used to describe new technologies with the potential to bring innovation to the insurance
sector and these advances may impact regulatory practices for insurance markets.
416
Industry
stakeholders — including existing or “traditional” insurers, startups, intermediaries, regula-
tors, and consumers — are all exploring how technological advancements can be leveraged to
increase eciency, oer better-tailored products to consumers, increase consumer choice, and
provide more eective and ecient regulation. Technological innovation reportedly has now
overtaken insurance regulation as the issue about which property and casualty insurer senior
executives are most concerned.
417
416. Organization for Economic Co-operation Development, Technology and Innovation in the Insurance Sector
(2017), available at: https://www.oecd.org/finance/Technology-and-innovation-in-the-insurance-sector.pdf.
Treasury, through the Federal Insurance Office, highlighted a number of examples where InsurTech is chang-
ing the business of insurance in its 2017 Annual Report, available at: https://www.treasury.gov/initiatives/fio/
reports-and-notices/Documents/2017_FIO_Annual_Report.pdf.
4 17.
See, e.g., KPMG, A New World of Opportunity: The Insurance Innovation Imperative (Oct. 2015), at 7, avail-
able at: https://assets.kpmg.com/content/dam/kpmg/pdf/2016/01/the-insurance-innovation-imperative.pdf.
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Recent InsurTech developments have aected a wide variety of operations, from back-oce
operations — including data collection techniques and pricing algorithms — to digital plat-
forms, claims-handling processes, and product oerings. Technological tools now used by insur-
ance stakeholders include the Internet of ings, telematics, big data, robo-advisors, machine
learning/articial intelligence (AI), and blockchain. Business models and product oerings
have also evolved to include peer-to-peer (P2P), usage-based, and on-demand insurance.
InsurTech startup funding is substantial, with $2.3 billion invested in 2017 alone.
418
Traditional
insurers have helped drive this growth by investing in InsurTech startups, and many have
established business units devoted exclusively to strategic investment in InsurTech ventures, the
exploration of their own InsurTech initiatives, and/or partnerships with InsurTech “hubs” that
bring together entrepreneurs, investors, and industry experts.
419
Entrepreneurs and investors
from outside of the insurance industry have also taken note of the potential to use InsurTech to
make the insurance supply-chain more ecient. InsurTech thus continues to attract consider-
able interest for both its potential to complement existing processes and its potential to disrupt.
Stakeholders have also observed that the United States’ regulatory environment could limit
innovation in the U.S. insurance sector, which could inhibit economic growth. Factors that
potentially could restrict insurance innovation include: (1) high regulatory barriers to entry; (2)
little exibility for regulators to accommodate new products or technologies; (3) inconsistent
laws and regulations (or the possibility of inconsistent application of laws and regulations) across
the 50 states; and (4) lengthy product approval processes. As a result, in some cases, insurers and
startups prefer the regulatory practices of foreign jurisdictions, such as the United Kingdom or
Singapore, over the United States when testing or introducing a new product or practice.
In response to InsurTech developments, insurance regulators are examining technological
innovation and its potential regulatory impact. In the United States, state insurance regulators
and the National Association of Insurance Commissioners (NAIC) have taken preliminary
steps to better understand emerging technologies and their regulation.
420
e NAIC, for
example, has formed an Innovation and Technology Task Force, which will, among other
things, “[p]rovide a forum for the discussion of innovation and technology developments in
the insurance sector, including the collection and use of data by insurers and state insurance
regulators — as well as new products, services and distribution platforms — in order to educate
418. See, e.g., Deloitte, Fintech by the Numbers: Incumbents, Startups, Investors Adapt to Maturing Ecosystem
(2017), available at: https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/us/Documents/financial-services/us-dcfs-
fintech-by-the-numbers-web.pdf; Willis Towers Watson, Quarterly InsurTech Briefing Q4 2017 (Jan. 2018),
available at: https://www.willistowerswatson.com/-/media/WTW/PDF/Insights/2018/01/quarterly-insurtech-
briefing-q4-2017.pdf.
419.
See, e.g., Oliver Suess, InsurTech Startups Attract Growing List of Traditional Insurer Partners, Ins. J. (Nov.
28, 2016), available at: https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/international/2016/11/28/433226.htm; Sam
Boyer, Traditional Insurance City Set to Become Disrupting Insurance City, Insurance Business America (Dec.
13, 2017), available at: https://www.insurancebusinessmag.com/us/news/technology/traditional-insurance-city-
set-to-become-disrupting-insurance-city-87629.aspx.
420.
State regulation of the insurance industry is coordinated through the NAIC, a voluntary organization whose
membership consists of the chief insurance regulatory officials of the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and
the five U.S. territories.
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state insurance regulators on how these developments impact consumer protection, privacy,
insurer and producer oversight, marketplace dynamics and the state-based insurance regula-
tory framework.”
421
e International Association of Insurance Supervisors (IAIS)
422
has also
taken an interest in innovation and recently published a report titled “Fintech Developments
in the Insurance Industry.”
423
Lawmakers, policymakers, and regulators should also take coordinated steps to encourage the
development of innovative insurance products and practices in the United States. Domestically,
this includes consideration of improving product speed to market, creating increased regula-
tory exibility, and harmonizing inconsistent laws and regulations. Treasury’s Federal Insurance
Oce, which provides insurance expertise in the federal government, should work closely with
state insurance regulators, the NAIC, and federal agencies on InsurTech issues.
Payments
Overview of the U.S. Payments System
e United States is the leader in facilitating consumer and business payment transactions. In
2016, interbank payments systems in the United States handled over $1 quadrillion in transaction
value, with payment systems involving nonbanks handling nearly $190 trillion of that transaction
value.
424
Payments are essential to commerce and the payments infrastructure that has been built
over decades empowers consumer choice in payments. is system has proven, over time, to be
stable, secure, and eective.
In the United States, four primary core payment systems transfer value between nancial insti-
tutions: credit card networks, debit card networks, automated clearing house (ACH) transfers,
and wire transfer services. In addition to these core components, nonbank payment processors,
payment service providers, money transmitters, and others help drive payment speed, security,
eciency and global penetration for businesses and consumers alike.
Recently, new technologies, especially in commerce, have changed the way that people live, con-
sume, and pay for goods and services. New technological abilities have led to higher consumer
expectations as to the speed and convenience of systems such as payments. Financial systems have
421. See http://www.naic.org/cmte_ex_ittf.htm.
422.
Established in 1994, the IAIS is the international standard-setting body responsible for developing and assist-
ing in the implementation of principles, standards, and other supporting material for the supervision of the insur-
ance sector. The IAIS’s objectives are as follows: to promote effective and globally consistent supervision of the
insurance industry; to develop and maintain fair, safe, and stable insurance markets; and to contribute to global
financial stability. IAIS members include insurance supervisors and regulators from more than 200 jurisdictions
in approximately 140 countries.
423.
International Association of Insurance Supervisors, FinTech Developments in the
Insurance Industry (Feb. 21, 2017), available at: https://www.iaisweb.org/file/65440/
report-on-fintech-developments-in-the-insurance-industry.
424.
Bank for International Settlements Committee on Payments and Market Infrastructures, Statistics on Payment,
Clearing and Settlement Systems in the CPMI Countries (Dec. 2017), at 406 and 408, available at: https://
www.bis.org/cpmi/publ/d172.pdf.
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and will continue to evolve to meet market demand, and payments is an area where innovation
and disruption by nonbank and technology rms has been increasingly visible. Over the past few
years, many rms have either launched a payments solution, or have publicly expressed interest
in entering the payments ecosystem. Firms see a need and a demand for services that are faster,
more convenient, and more integrated. As such, the breadth of available options coupled with the
competition in payments has led to increased functionality, innovative solutions, and newer ways
to ease transactions in order to promote economic activity and growth.
However, barriers to entry and innovation do exist in payments. First, a business case must be
made before a rm even begins to build and implement a payment solution — scale of consumer
adoption, ubiquity of acceptance, and security of the mechanism, among other challenges — must
be taken into account for any new and innovative payment scheme to be successful.
Second, the payments system in the United States is operationally complex — while the payments
landscape continues to undergo rapid innovation, there has been very little relative change to
the back-end processes that actually move value throughout the nancial system. Innovation in
payments has largely been happening on the front-end, consumer-facing side of a transaction. e
user experience, products, and innovative solutions that have been introduced in recent years with
the advent of mobile technology, in essence, layer on top of the existing core payment systems.
ird, regulation of payments is fragmented; further, the core payment systems exist to move
money between nancial institutions and their customer accounts and as such, only regulated
nancial institutions have direct access to the infrastructure. To ensure the security of the payments
system, those rms that directly connect to it must be safe and sound institutions that are ade-
quately supervised; nancial institutions as direct participants, therefore, are subject to prudential
bank regulation and supervision. Firms that layer on top of this bank-centric system and provide
consumer-facing solutions are regulated in a variety of ways, and governance of payments is as
fragmented as the payment systems themselves. Payments rms are generally overseen through the
banking agencies’ third-party oversight guidance, through state money transmitter statutes, and/or
by private payment network association operating rules and contracts. is fragmented approach
to payments governance has perhaps in some ways entrenched legacy systems and slowed down
innovations in areas like faster payments, but on the other hand, such a system has allowed for
innovations over a wide range of niches that allow for multiple solutions to emerge and be tested
by a wider audience. is can ensure innovation with fewer risks to payment safety.
Innovation has progressed through solutions built on top of the legacy payments infrastructure.
ere are benets and challenges in employing such an approach; while the infrastructure, legal,
and regulatory hurdles are very complex, this method has also allowed for more expediency than a
built-from-scratch system and has allowed private rms to innovate on their own without extensive
government mandates. See Appendix C for additional background on the U.S. payments systems.
Money Transmitters
Money transmitters are generally nonbank rms that transfer funds or value between individu-
als. ese rms are important because they allow for payments to be made through a variety of
channels and can be oered by various nonbank rms. In most cases, a nonbank that is moving
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monetary value, whether it be by remittance (domestic or international), stored value/prepaid
cards, check cashing, or person-to-person payments, will be licensed as a money transmitter.
Licensing and Supervision
Money transmitter licensing is governed primarily by state law. Dierences in state statutes
mean that there is no unied denition of a money transmitter; as a result, states have dierent
variations that could bring in a number of rms that do not necessarily engage in the traditional
form of funds transfer. If a rm engages in money transmission, or even if it may potentially fall
under the denition of a money transmitter in a certain state, then it must apply for a money
transmitter license in that state, in many cases without even having a physical presence in the
state. e eect is that for any rm with a nationwide footprint, a license in every state is neces-
sary. Licensing requirements vary by state, but generally include requirements to submit credit
reports, business plans, and nancial statements; and a requirement to maintain a surety bond
to cover losses that might occur. States have engaged in several eorts to streamline the licensing
process, but overall adoption of these initiatives has been mixed. (Further discussion of state
licensing of money transmitters is addressed in the previous chapter on Aligning the Regulatory
Framework to Promote Innovation.)
Money transmitters are considered money services businesses (MSBs) and are therefore subject to
the requirements of the Bank Secrecy Act. ey must register at the federal level with FinCEN.
Banks, foreign banks, or rms that are registered with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission
(SEC) or U.S. Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) are not considered MSBs and
do not have to register as such.
Money transmitters are supervised and examined by each state where they hold a license. For
money transmitters with nationwide state licenses, this means duplicative examinations by a num-
ber of dierent state regulators, and has emerged as a common theme for reform among rms.
e most recent data available from state regulators shows that over half of all consolidated money
transmitter rms operate and have licenses in multiple states.
425
State regulators note that while states have dierent frequency of exams, most money transmit-
ters are examined annually, either by individual states and/or through joint exams organized
among several states. States examine for safety and soundness as well as compliance with both
state law and BSA/AML requirements.
426
Firms have raised concerns regarding the frequency
and quantity of examinations and the sometimes-diering standards and idiosyncratic require-
ments from state to state.
Regulation E Remittance Rule Disclosures
For money transmitters that provide international remittances, a particular regulatory ineciency
has emerged after nancial reform. Section 1073 of Dodd-Frank requires disclosures to be provided
425. Conference of State Bank Supervisors and Money Transmitters Regulators Association, The State of State
Money Service Businesses Regulation and Supervision (May 2010), at 6, available at: https://www.csbs.org/
state-state-money-service-businesses-regulation-and-supervision.
426.
Id. at 9-10.
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to senders of remittance transfers.
427
e Bureau implemented section 1073 through amendments
to Regulation E to require that:
• Companies give disclosures to consumers before the consumers pay for the transfer.
ese disclosures must include: the exchange rate, fees and taxes collected, fees charged
by agents and intermediaries, the amount of money delivered not including fees and
taxes charged to the recipient, and a disclaimer that other fees may apply.
• Companies also provide a post-transaction receipt that repeats all the information from
the rst disclosure, plus dates of payment availability, and error resolution and cancella-
tion rights notices.
• Companies generally give customers 30 minutes to cancel a transfer in exchange for a
full refund.
428
e rule applies to any electronic transfer of funds from a U.S.-based customer to a person in a
foreign country; this includes both money transmitters and banking organizations and applies even
if done through a wire transfer or ACH. ere is, however, a de minimis exemption for transfers
of $15 or less and companies that performed 100 or fewer remittance transfers in the current and
previous calendar year.
429
Firms have noted concerns with the lack of exibility in the disclosure
rules. For example, electronic disclosures, like an email or mobile disclosure, may only be given if
the transaction is done electronically. For in-person transactions, paper receipts must be provided.
Recommendations
Treasury supports the Bureau’s ongoing eorts to reassess Regulation E. Treasury recommends that
the Bureau provide more exibility regarding the issuance of Regulation E disclosures and raise the
current 100 transfer per annum threshold for applicability of the de minimis exemption.
Fintech and Payments
Technology has advanced the payments market, increased competition, and increased innovation
as new payment services have been introduced and further layered upon the existing payments
system. Many new rms and technologies are now competing for a greater share of consumer
transactions and the corresponding data. us far, few dominant players have yet emerged, and
ntech payments solutions have largely remained conned to niche uses within the market.
Person-to-Person (P2P) Payments
P2P payments that move money directly between bank accounts have been relatively slow to develop
in the United States, in large part due to challenges within the existing payments infrastructure. Two
core payment systems used to transfer funds between bank accounts — wire transfers and ACH —
each have challenges for P2P. For example, wire transfers are far more expensive than ACH. On the
other hand, ACH does not transfer in real time like wire transfers. Both methods require that the
receiver provide the sender with their bank account information — routing and account numbers
4 27. 12 U.S.C. § 5601.
428. 12 C.F.R. §§ 1005.30-1005.36.
429. Id. § 1005.30.
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— which may be cumbersome to nd and may raise security concerns. More recently, technology
and innovation have provided a way for a competitive market for P2P payments to emerge.
Like many other innovations in the payments system, these new P2P technologies layer on top
of the existing payment systems. ese new products are lling a demand for better account-to-
account transfer mechanisms and consumer experience, and are beginning to build scale. According
to a consumer payments survey, P2P payments are gaining ground, but mostly among young
consumers. e survey found that the breakdown of P2P payment adopters fell largely along lines
of age demographics, as people under the age of 35 were far more likely to already use or be ready
to adopt P2P payment platforms than consumers over the age of 55.
430
However, there is room for
growth, as only 29% of those surveyed have completed a P2P payment, with slightly less than half
of the under-35 demographic having already used such a service. Among respondents who had not
used a P2P payment service in 2017, more than half of those between 18 and 55 said that they
were likely or somewhat likely to use such a service in the future. Security concerns are more likely
to hold back older users from using P2P payments than other types of concerns.
431
Innovative solutions to these problems have begun to emerge in the market and additional innova-
tion in this space is to be expected. While multiple options exist in the market, two well-known
examples are discussed.
Bank Account-to-Bank Account Transfers
A consortium of some of the largest U.S. banks
432
has been working on a mechanism to transfer
funds quickly and directly between bank accounts. e system works by leveraging the debit card
infrastructure to move money, and generally functions through the online and mobile banking
portals of each member bank. Previously, account-to-account transfers have needed to use either
the wire transfer or ACH networks to complete the transaction. But now, the new transactions
are cleared and posted in near real time and settlement occurs bilaterally between the applicable
banks at the end of the day via ACH; in essence, the new network serves as a special standardized
messaging system between banks for specic account-to-account transfers.
Nonbank P2P Transfers
A number of MSBs have also emerged in the P2P space. ese nonbank rms usually have obtained
money transmitter licenses in every state, and only allow users to transfer money to other users
of the same service. ese sorts of services work by rst using the balance that is held in a user’s
account; if the account does not have enough funds, an ACH transfer from a bank account or
funding with a debit card or a credit card, can be used as a funding option.
433
430. Total System Services, Inc., 2017 TSYS U.S. Consumer Payment Study (Mar. 27, 2017), at 13-14, available
at: https://www.tsys.com/Assets/TSYS/downloads/rs_2017-us-consumer-payment-study.pdf (“TSYS Payment
Study”).
431.
Id.
432. Bank of America, BB&T, Capital One, JPMorgan Chase, PNC Bank, U.S. Bank, and Wells Fargo Bank. See
Early Warning Services, LLC, Early Warning Corporate Overview (2017), available at: https://www.earlywarn-
ing.com/pdf/early-warning-corporate-overview.pdf.
433.
See, e.g., PayPal, Inc., Venmo User Agreement (last updated Dec. 18, 2017), available at: https://venmo.com/
legal/us-user-agreement.
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Digital Wallets
Digital and mobile wallets have increased in popularity and have continued to evolve within
the last few years. Researchers at the Federal Reserve Bank of Boston have categorized mobile
wallets into four distinct models: (1) near eld communication (NFC) wallets; (2) cloud-based,
card-on-le wallets; (3) cloud-based, card-on-le card network wallets; and (4) merchant or
nancial institution QR code-based wallets.
434
Each of these methods uses tokenization to secure
payment information.
• NFC wallets are contactless payment mechanisms. Payments are made when a smart-
phone is held near a payment terminal, and authentication takes place (ngerprint or
PIN number) before the information is sent from the phone to the terminal. NFC
wallets have a number of common features, although the hardware and software vary.
NFC wallets can only accept eligible and wallet-accepted credit and debit cards, are
available for use where a retailer has an NFC-enabled payment terminal, and can only be
used with the corresponding smartphone operating system.
435
• Cloud-based, card-on-le wallets are primarily used for online e-commerce payments.
ese services allow a consumer to utilize multiple funding methods — credit/debit/pre-
paid cards, ACH, and so on — for input into the mobile wallet. e consumer may then
check out at various merchants online using the funding method of their choice within the
wallet. Generally, any payment card may be input – there is not a need for the issuing bank
to provide for eligibility. Merchants utilize APIs to enable payment using these services.
436
• Cloud based, card-on-le card network wallets function similar to the card-on-le
systems previously noted, removing the need for merchants to store and collect payment
data. e card networks work with merchants to allow for the digital wallets to be
enabled on their own website or mobile app.
437
• QR code-based wallets use QR codes as a way to complete payment, with payment
information that is stored in the app. ese services, however, can only be used in their
own environments. For bank-based wallets, a QR code provided by the app must be
scanned by the cashier, and can only be used in conjunction with the nancial institu-
tion’s products. A store-based payment app requires the consumer to scan the QR code
provided by the store’s payment terminal to complete the payment.
438
Like P2P payments, digital wallets are also seeing increased adoption among younger consumers,
albeit very gradually. Age is a signicant factor in the likelihood that a particular consumer has
loaded or plans to load card information into a digital wallet. As for funding choice, consumers are
434. Susan M. Pandy and Marianne Crowe, Federal Reserve Bank of Boston, Adapting to Mobile Wallets: The
Consumer Experience (revised June 16, 2017), available at: https://www.bostonfed.org/publications/payment-
strategies/choosing-a-mobile-wallet-the-consumer-perspective.aspx.
435.
Id. at 5.
436. Id. at 13.
4 37. Id. at 16.
438. Id. at 18-20.
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more likely to load a credit card into a digital wallet than a debit card, and far more likely to use a
credit card to make an online payment.
439
For mobile wallet usage (especially NFC wallets) to increase, the cards that are issued by banks
must be eligible for enrollment. In 2017, the Federal Reserve Bank of Boston released a survey that
asked banks from across the United States about their plans for mobile payments, among other
things. e survey found that a relatively small percentage of banks oered mobile wallet services,
and those that did were predominantly larger banks.
439. TSYS Payment Study, at 13-14.
020406080 100
$0-100M
Offer
now
Offer within
2 years
No plan
to offer
$100-250
M
$250-500M
$500-1000M
$1000M+
Source: Marianne Crowe et al.,
Mobile Banking and Payment Practices of U.S. Financial Institutions 2016 Mobile Financial Services
Survey Results from FIs in Seven Federal Reserve Districts,
Federal Reserve Bank of Boston (Dec. 2017), at 50.
Figure 23: U.S. Financial Institutions Mobile Payment Services Plan (percent of
respondents by asset size)
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Also, as shown in Figure 24 below, the survey found that at banks that oer mobile payment
services and track customer usage data, a small percentage of customers (vertical axis) account for
a large proportion of mobile wallet usage (horizontal axis).
440
Despite the fragmented regulatory framework and layered nature of the overall system, payments
have been an area of high innovation and competition, which thus far has been benecial to
consumers and the market. is competition has led to a number of private actors emerging that
are capable of providing innovative services in new and dierent ways. Given the structure of
the payments system in general, a wait-and-see approach to innovative payments may be most
benecial. e next steps in payments will likely center around the pursuit of more speed and
security in payments.
Payments Modernization
Technology continues to evolve and transform the way that consumers in the United States and
abroad do business. e increase in technological capacity and delivery systems has sped up the
nature of even routine transactions. Today, one can shop, compare, transact, and receive delivery
faster than ever before — and the underlying technology will continue to advance in order to make
this process even quicker and more ecient. However, as noncash transactions have increased, the
back-end payments system underlying these transactions remains largely the same. As innovation
allows for faster transactions, consumers are going to demand payments systems that likewise
function with more speed.
440. Marianne Crowe, Elisa Tavilla, and Breffni McGuire, Mobile Banking and Payment Practices of U.S. Financial
Institutions: 2016 Mobile Financial Services Survey Results from FIs in Seven Federal Reserve Districts
(Dec. 2017), at 60, available at: https://www.bostonfed.org/publications/mobile-banking-and-payment-surveys/
mobile-banking-and-payment-practices-of-us-financial-institutions.aspx.
Figure 24: Customer Enrollment in Mobile Payment Services (percent of respondents
that trac
k data)
0
50 10025 75
50%+
35-50%
20-35%
5-20%
0-5%
Source: Marianne Crowe et al., Mobile Banking and Payment Practices of U.S. Financial Institutions 2016 Mobile Financial Services
Survey Results from FIs in Seven Federal Reserve Districts, Federal Reserve Bank of Boston (Dec. 2017), at 60.
1
3
15
81
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Recognizing this, the Federal Reserve set out to lead a discussion on how best to modernize the U.S.
payments system. e process started with the Federal Reserve releasing a consultation paper
441
for
public comment in 2013. Following the comment period, the Federal Reserve issued a strategy
document
442
that outlined desired outcomes and next steps for improving the payments system.
In order to advance solutions for the ve desired outcomes of speed, security, eciency, ease of
international payments, and collaboration, the Federal Reserve set up two task forces: one for
faster payments and one for secure payments. While the Federal Reserve served as the leader and
convener of these task forces, they were inclusive of a wide variety of stakeholders and perspectives
so that they would result in collective agreement on a path forward.
Faster Payments Task Force
e Faster Payments Task Force was initially convened in May 2015 with the charge of identify-
ing and evaluating approaches for implementing safe and ubiquitous faster payments capabilities.
e task force consisted of over 300 stakeholders, and was initially given a deadline of 2016 for
completing this work. eir nal report was released in two parts in 2017: part one
443
discussed
the task force’s approach, and part two
444
outlined the task force’s recommendations. e task force
asked industry participants to submit proposals for faster payments solutions that rms had under
consideration. e goal was not to select proposals as winners, but merely to identify ideas for
solutions that private-sector participants were envisioning.
Industry Efforts on Faster Payments
e Clearing House’s Real-Time Payments (RTP) System
In November 2017, e Clearing House’s (TCH) RTP system — one of the private-sector, faster
payments solutions proposed to the task force — went live as an entirely new payment system.
ough RTP is open to all U.S. depository institutions, it currently connects six U.S. banks, and
TCH has partnered with servicing rm FIS in order to expand the reach of RTP past TCH’s mem-
bership base. RTP allows participants to send credit (push) payments through the system at any
time with clearance, settlement, and availability/posting to the receiver in real time. RTP does not
include a consumer-facing payment application; it is the back-end plumbing that moves payments
between banks resulting from the banks’ own customer-facing applications and services. One of
the key components of RTP is the secure messaging system that allows banks to communicate with
441. Federal Reserve Banks, Payment System Improvement — Public Consultation Paper (Sept. 10, 2013), avail-
able at: https://fedpaymentsimprovement.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Payment_System_Improvement-
Public_Consultation_Paper.pdf.
442.
Federal Reserve System, Strategies for Improving the U.S. Payment System (Jan. 26, 2015), available at:
https://fedpaymentsimprovement.org/wp-content/uploads/strategies-improving-us-payment-system.pdf.
443.
Faster Payments Task Force, The U.S. Path to Faster Payments Final Report Part One: The Faster Payments
Task Force Approach (Jan. 2017), available at: https://fasterpaymentstaskforce.org/wp-content/uploads/faster-
payments-final-report-part1.pdf.
444.
Faster Payments Task Force, The U.S. Path to Faster Payments Final Report Part Two: A Call to Action (July
2017), available at: https://fasterpaymentstaskforce.org/wp-content/uploads/faster-payments-task-force-final-
report-part-two.pdf.
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payment messages. e messages are exible, compliant with global messaging standards,
445
and
allow for immediate conrmation.
TCH is the rule writer for the RTP system.
446
System participants must be depository institutions
with branches or oces located in the United States. While nonbank rms cannot be direct par-
ticipants in RTP, TCH does have a process for allowing third-party processors to be used for trans-
mitting and receiving messages through the system on behalf of their banking clients. Currently,
payment values through the system are capped at $25,000 per transaction.
Banks are required to prefund a Federal Reserve account and participants must have Federal
Reserve clearing accounts to use RTP (or have a relationship with a correspondent bank that can
act as a funding agent). TCH uses a single pooled account at the Federal Reserve which is jointly
owned by all participating banks (and/or funding agents), with TCH acting as the sole custodian.
While all the banks have an ownership stake in the account, only TCH can approve or push money
out to a bank. e account is pre-funded by the banks via Fedwire payment. e size of each bank’s
prefunding obligation is determined by TCH rules, and while it is envisioned that most banks
will prefund once per day, provisions allow for multiple rounds of prefunding or top-up funding
throughout the day.
Same Day ACH
447
Over the past several years, the rule-writing organization for all ACH networks, NACHA, and the
ACH operators have been working to bring more speed to ACH payments by introducing a same-
day ACH service. In 2017, its rst full year of availability, same-day ACH payments amounted to
75.1 million separate transactions with an aggregate value of $87.1 billion.
448
Same-day ACH was implemented in three phases. e rst phase (September 2016)
449
set up two
new daily payment submission windows: a morning submission deadline at 10:30 a.m. ET, with
settlement occurring at 1 p.m.; and an afternoon submission deadline at 2:45 p.m. ET, with settle-
ment occurring at 5 p.m. e rst phase was limited to credit (push) transactions, and mandated
that every receiving nancial institution be able to accept same-day ACH transfers and make the
funds available to customers at the end of its processing day. e second phase (September 2017)
450
445. Specifically, the messages are compliant with ISO 20022, which is a universal financial industry messaging
scheme that enables financial systems around the world to communicate through a common messaging protocol.
446.
The Clearing House, Real-Time Payments Operating Rules (Oct. 30, 2017), available at: https://www.theclear-
inghouse.org/payment-systems/-/media/6de51d50713841539e7b38b91fe262d1.ashx; The Clearing House,
Real-Time Payments Participation Rules (Oct. 30, 2017), available at: https://www.theclearinghouse.org/pay-
ment-systems/-/media/d0314d2612ab4619b3c09745b54cf96f.ashx.
4 47.
See Appendix C for more background on the ACH system.
448.
NACHA, Same Day ACH Volume 2017 (Jan. 11, 2018), available at: https://web.nacha.org/resource/
same-day-ach/same-day-ach-volume-2017.
449.
NACHA, Same Day ACH: Moving Payments Faster (Phase 1) (Sept. 23, 2016), available at: https://www.
nacha.org/rules/same-day-ach-moving-payments-faster.
450.
NACHA, Same Day ACH: Moving Payments Faster (Phase 2) (Sept. 15, 2017), available at: https://www.
nacha.org/rules/same-day-ach-moving-payments-faster-phase-2.
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allowed debit (pull) entries to be originated. e third and nal phase (March 2018)
451
mandated
that all same-day ACH funds be made available to customers by 5 p.m. local time for each receiving
nancial institution. Currently, international transactions and single transfers exceeding $25,000
are not eligible for same-day ACH.
Although the same-day ACH project has been completed, NACHA continues its focus on increas-
ing the speed of payments. In early 2018, NACHA asked for member comment on a proposed
new rule that would: (1) add a third same-day ACH submission window with a deadline at 5:15
p.m. ET and settlement occurring at 6:30 p.m.; (2) mandate 1 p.m. local time funds availability
for the rst ACH settlement window; and (3) increase the eligible transaction cap to $100,000.
Challenges for Faster Payments in the United States
Adoption and Acceptance
In any payment system, one of the key challenges is the level of consumer adoption of the system.
If a payment system does not have broad adoption by consumers, then merchants have less incen-
tive to expend resources to accept it. Likewise, consumers are less likely to use a payment method
if it is not widely accepted. One factor that can mitigate this problem is if there is interoperability
between systems, and providers can at least receive payments on behalf of customers. Without a
mandate, either from the government or a large share of private sector operators, change can be
much slower. For example, same-day ACH had a very low adoption level until NACHA amended
its rules to require receipt.
452
Similarly, it was the private credit card networks that initiated the
liability shift for EMV cards over the last few years. U.S. government entities have opted not to
create mandates, instead preferring a collective approach.
453
Use Cases
Another challenge to faster payments is the lack of clear business and use cases for faster pay-
ments, aside from emergency payments. As a part of its payments improvement work, the Federal
Reserve commissioned consultants to study the question of use cases. First, the consultants
noted that among countries that have established faster payments, the decision was more strate-
gic than based on use cases and that premium pricing was likely to aect adoption, among other
factors.
454
When discussing business cases, the consultants found that they were net neutral or
even net negative given the conservative assumptions used, but that business cases could be
net positive if the time horizon were expanded.
455
ey did note however, that latent demand
could be a challenge in the analysis — that demand could emerge in the market after the new
451. NACHA, Same Day ACH: Moving Payments Faster (Phase 3) (Mar. 16, 2018), available at: https://www.
nacha.org/rules/same-day-ach-moving-payments-faster-phase-3.
452.
Faster Payments Task Force Final Report Part Two, at 17-18.
453. Federal Reserve System, Strategies for Improving the U.S. Payment System: Federal Reserve Next Steps in
the Payments Improvement Journey (Sept. 6, 2017), available at: https://fedpaymentsimprovement.org/wp-con-
tent/uploads/next-step-payments-journey.pdf.
454.
Federal Reserve System, Strategies for Improving the U.S. Payment System (Jan. 26, 2015), at 37-38, avail-
able at: https://fedpaymentsimprovement.org/wp-content/uploads/strategies-improving-us-payment-system.pdf
(“Federal Reserve 2015 Strategies”).
455.
Id. at 43-44.
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technology and infrastructure is introduced, similar to the U.K.’s experience where payments
technology allowed for a shift to a “just-in-time” product delivery model that lessened the need
for excess small business working capital.
456
Cost
Today, faster payments services are more expensive to use. Taking the ACH system as an example,
next-day batched ACH through the Federal Reserve’s FedACH system costs $0.0035 per transaction
(although there is tiered pricing, and discounts are available for higher volumes),
457
whereas the same-
day ACH service costs $0.052 per transaction.
458
is dierence in cost is why the majority of ACH
payments made by Treasury, for example, through FedACH may not be suitable for same-day servicing.
Settlement
Post-transaction settlement refers to the payment of obligations between parties. is can be done
in one of two ways — between private banks or through a country’s central bank, with the latter
seen as less risky. When it comes to faster payments, the United States, unlike some other jurisdic-
tions, does not currently have a 24x7x365 real-time settlement system. Real-time settlement can
reduce credit risk that institutions otherwise have to take once payments are cleared and posted to
the receiver’s account in real time.
e Federal Reserve Banks own and operate the National Settlement Service (NSS), which provides
multilateral settlement for private-sector clearing arrangements, including private ACH networks.
Unlike Fedwire, which settles immediately upon payment under a Real-Time Gross Settlement
framework, the NSS is a deferred net settlement system, which means that payments are accumu-
lated and netted throughout the day (or period if more frequently than daily), until net settlement
occurs.
459
e NSS is open for use Monday-Friday from 7:30 a.m.-5:30 p.m., ET.
460
In the Federal Reserve’s payments strategy document, they note that the NSS expanded its
daily opening times by a half hour at open and close during 2015, and that the Fed would
look into weekend and 24x7x365 service in the future.
461
To date, available hours have not
been expanded further.
e European Central Bank is developing an instant payments settlement system that is sched-
uled to go live in November 2018. e TARGET Instant Payment Settlement service will be
available 24x7x365.
462
456. Id. at 44-45.
4 57. FedACH, Services 2018 Fee Schedule, accessible at: https://www.frbservices.org/resources/fees/ach-2018.html.
458.
NACHA, 2016, Same Day ACH: FAQ, at 3, accessible at: https://web.nacha.org/system/files/
resource/2017-08/Same-Day-ACH-FAQ-2016_0.pdf.
459.
Bank for International Settlements Committee on Payment and Settlement Systems, Principles for Financial
Market Infrastructures (Apr. 2012), at 149-150, accessible at: https://www.bis.org/cpmi/publ/d101a.pdf.
460.
Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, National Settlement Service (last updated Jan. 15, 2015),
available at: https://www.federalreserve.gov/paymentsystems/natl_about.htm.
461.
Federal Reserve 2015 Strategies, at 50-52.
462. European Central Bank, The New TARGET Instant Payment Settlement (TIPS) Service (June 2017), available
at: https://www.ecb.europa.eu/paym/intro/news/articles_2017/html/201706_article_tips.en.html.
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Recommendations
Treasury agrees with the approach taken by the Faster Payments Task Force and notes that collec-
tive action and agreement can be a very powerful tool in creating a faster payments system that
works for all stakeholders. However, now that the foundational work has been completed, Treasury
recommends that the Federal Reserve set public goals and corresponding deadlines consistent with
the overall conclusions of the Faster Payments Task Force’s nal report.
Treasury recommends that the Federal Reserve move quickly to facilitate a faster retail payments
system, such as through the development of a real-time settlement service, that would also allow
for more ecient and ubiquitous access to innovative payment capabilities. In particular, smaller
nancial institutions, like community banks and credit unions, should also have the ability to
access the most-innovative technologies and payment services.
While Treasury believes that a payment system led by the private sector has the potential to be
at the forefront of innovation and allow for the most advanced payments system in the world,
back-end Federal Reserve payment services must also be appropriately enhanced to enable innova-
tions. Treasury agrees with the Federal Reserve’s policy criteria for introducing a new payment
service – namely, that the Federal Reserve must: (1) expect to achieve full cost recovery in the long
run; (2) expect the service to provide a clear public benet, including improving the eectiveness
of markets, reducing the risk in payments, or improving eciency of the payments system; and
(3)conclude that the service should be one that other providers alone cannot expect to provide
with reasonable eectiveness, scope, and equity.
463
Faster Payments Abroad
Many jurisdictions around the world have embarked on initiatives to increase the speed of
payments. In many cases, the progress towards faster payments abroad has outpaced progress
in the United States. As of mid-year 2017, it is estimated that there were 25 countries that
had some sort of live faster payments system. Features of these faster payment systems vary,
but most systems are operational 24/7 and post transactions to accounts in real time, near real
time, or within a few minutes.
464
At the same time, it is estimated that there were 10 additional
countries that had faster payments systems under development, including the United States.
465
e United Kingdom’s Transition to Faster Payments
One such system, the U.K. Faster Payments Scheme, is worth looking at in more detail as its
transition could provide an interesting comparison to the current U.S. payments system. e
U.K. Faster Payments Service (FPS) was created as an entirely new infrastructure on a directive
463. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Federal Reserve in the Payments System, Policy
Statement (1990), available at: https://www.federalreserve.gov/paymentsystems/pfs_frpaysys.htm.
464.
FIS, Flavors of Fast: A Trip Around the World of Immediate Payments (2017), at 29-55.
465.
Id. at 66-71. This estimate was made prior to TCH’s RTP system going live, although RTP is still currently lim-
ited to a small number of member banks.
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from the government, and went live in 2008.
466
Prior to the implementation of FPS, the U.K.
had a payment rail network that was very similar to the current U.S. system. e U.K. large value
Real-Time Gross Settlement system, CHAPS, is very similar to Fedwire and CHIPS. e U.K.
batched electronic payment transfer network, Bacs, is very similar to the U.S. ACH networks.
467
e process to build and implement FPS took about three years, from directive to an opera-
tional system.
468
e United Kingdom rst considered options to speed up account to account
payments through systems that were already operational. While they considered speeding up
Bacs to same-day service, or promoting more usage of CHAPS for lower value payments, prob-
lems of ultimate speed and cost to the consumer, respectively, pushed them to choose the path
of creating a brand new infrastructure.
469
e FPS system authorizes and clears transactions in
real time, but settlement is still deferred and done through the Bank of England’s three daily
settlement cycles, as was done prior to FPS. e most recent annual data from FPS shows that
the service is growing the fastest of any form of electronic payment in the United Kingdom,
having logged 16% growth between 2016 and 2017.
470
One notable dierence between the U.K. FPS and a potential U.S. faster payments system is
the ability for widespread adoption. Since the U.K. banking system is more concentrated than
the U.S. banking system, a U.S. system would need to be reachable by a larger number of bank-
ing institutions to benet all consumers, and the cost to operate the system would have to be
borne by a greater number of institutions which could lead to higher costs of implementation
and maintenance.
471
While the United Kingdom provides an example for implementation of a
faster payments network, many of these issues may have dierent outcomes in a U.S. system.
Cross Border Faster Payments
Most payments systems work within the borders of a single country and transfer units of a
single currency. However, there are systems that are in development and beginning to come
online that will allow for faster transfer of funds across borders and currencies. One example
is the SWIFT GPI enhanced messaging system, which went live in January 2017. SWIFT
currently has over 150 banks worldwide that are committed to the service, and 45 banks that
are live. e SWIFT GPI systems allows for faster crediting of funds (50% credited within 30
minutes), unaltered remittance information, complete directories of members, and tracking of
payments through the entire process.
472
466. Claire Greene et al., Costs and Benefits of Building Faster Payments Systems: The U.K. Experience and
Implications for the United States, Federal Reserve Bank of Boston Current Policy Perspectives No. 14-5 (Feb.
24, 2015), at 2, available at: https://www.bostonfed.org/publications/current-policy-perspectives/2014/costs-
and-benefits-of-building-faster-payment-systems-the-uk-experience-and-implications-for-the-united-states.aspx.
4 67.
Id. at 10-11.
468. Id. at 28.
469. Id. at 30-31.
470. For additional statistics for FPS growth and volumes, see http://www.fasterpayments.org.uk/statistics.
471.
Greene et al., at 44-46.
472. See SWIFT, SWIFT gpi: Cross-Border Payments, Transformed (Mar. 2018), available at: https://www.swift.
com/resource/swift-gpi-brochure.
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Secure Payments Task Force
e Secure Payments Task Force was initially convened in June 2016 and focused on three pri-
orities: (1) identifying payment security priorities; (2) advising the Federal Reserve on payment
security; and (3) coordinating with the Faster Payments Task Force.
473
e group included stake-
holders from both government and the private sector. e Federal Reserve acted as a facilitator
and convener. e Secure Payments Task Force issued its nal deliverable in March 2018 — an
educational report on the payment lifecycle and security proles of various payment methods
including legal and regulatory references for each category of payment, and a short, high-level
list of challenges and improvement opportunity within each payment bucket.
474
After issuing the
report, the task force disbanded.
In March 2018, the Federal Reserve announced a 4-6 month study to measure and assess payments
fraud and its costs, which is expected to provide insights into the vulnerability points within
payment security.
475
e Federal Reserve also plans to establish collaborative industry workgroups
on topics yet to be discussed. Other eorts to enhance payment security, such as EMV migration,
have been accomplished through private sector channels.
Recommendations
Treasury recognizes the utility of a working group that is focused on the continued high level
of security in the U.S. payments system. To this end, Treasury looks forward to specic next
steps and actionable deadlines for continued work from members of the Secure Payments Task
Force and similar groups. e Federal Reserve should work as the convener, coordinator, and
driver of the work product produced by members that worked on the Secure Payments Task
Force, which could include work streams identied by the Faster Payments Task Force as areas
for future work. Specically, the Federal Reserve should engage stakeholders to identify pay-
ment systems resiliency as new payment systems come online, and to help counsel the Federal
Reserve as it works to potentially develop its own operating faster payments system. e Federal
Reserve should continue to engage stakeholders to promote and develop mechanisms to improve
information sharing within the payments ecosystem, and especially between members of the
improved payments task forces. Treasury recommends that continued work in the area of pay-
ment security include an actionable plan for future work, and ensure that solutions, especially
in security, do not include specic tech mandates.
473. Federal Reserve System, Strategies for Improving the U.S. Payment System: Federal Reserve Next Steps in
the Payments Improvement Journey (Sept. 6, 2017), at 7, available at: https://www.federalreserve.gov/newsev-
ents/pressreleases/files/other20170906a1.pdf.
474.
Secure Payments Task Force, Payment Lifecycles and Security Profiles (Mar. 2018), available at: https://
securepaymentstaskforce.org/wp-content/uploads/sptf-profiles-all.pdf.
475.
Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Press Release - Federal Reserve to Study Payments
Fraud and Security Vulnerabilities (Mar. 29, 2018), available at: https://www.federalreserve.gov/newsevents/
pressreleases/other20180329a.htm.
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Wealth Management and Digital Financial Planning
Overview
One of the Core Principles outlined in Executive Order 13772 is to “empower Americans to make
independent nancial decisions and informed choices in the marketplace, save for retirement, and
build individual wealth.” Despite eorts at improving nancial literacy, including through the
Financial Literacy and Education Commission chaired by the Secretary of the Treasury,
476
many
Americans struggle with making nancial decisions that have a profound eect on their own well-
being and the well-being of their dependents. Too often, individuals make nancial decisions that
are sub-optimal or based on immediate gratication rather than their long-term nancial welfare.
477
For decades, wealthier Americans have hired advisors to develop, implement, and monitor nancial
plans. Financial planning can involve a broad range of services, including recommendations for
budgeting and goal setting, spending oversight, debt management, asset allocation for investment
portfolios, selection of insurance products, and tax and estate planning; however, there is no universal
denition as to what should be included in a nancial plan.
478
ere are also no legal requirements
regarding the qualications to be a nancial planner. Some nancial advisors may describe themselves
as nancial planners, but only recommend investments in a narrow range of products.
479
In the past, the costs of retaining a nancial planner may not have made economic sense for
Americans with modest means. is lack of nancial planning advice can often make it more
dicult for these Americans to achieve sucient wealth accumulation to sustain their livelihoods
in retirement. To the extent that Americans do not adequately plan and save for their nancial
needs, additional stresses can be placed on the taxpayer-supported safety net. Disparities in access
to nancial expertise can lead to increased wealth inequality in the United States.
Trends in Retirement Savings
e benets provided by Social Security were never intended to be the sole source for retirement
income needs.
480
While Americans are responsible for covering the remainder of their retirement
needs, a signicant number are inadequately prepared.
481
476. See generally https://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/financial-education/Pages/commission-index.aspx.
477.
See Justine S. Hastings and Olivia S. Mitchell, How Financial Literacy and Impatience Shape Retirement
Wealth and Investment Behaviors, NBER Working Paper (Jan. 2011), available at: http://www.nber.org/papers/
w16740.pdf.
478.
See U.S. Government Accountability Office, Consumer Finance: Regulatory Coverage Generally Exists for
Financial Planners, but Consumer Protection Issues Remain (Jan. 2011), at 1, available at: https://www.gao.
gov/new.items/d11235.pdf.
479.
Office of Investor Education and Advocacy, U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, Investment Advisers:
What You Need to Know Before Choosing One (Aug. 7, 2012), available at: https://www.sec.gov/reportspubs/
investor-publications/investorpubsinvadvisershtm.html.
480.
Social Security Administration, Understanding the Benefits (2018), at 1, available at: https://www.ssa.gov/
pubs/EN-05-10024.pdf.
481.
YiLi Chien and Paul Morris, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, Many Americans Still Lack Retirement Savings,
Regional Economist (1st Qtr. 2018), available at: https://www.stlouisfed.org/publications/regional-economist/
first-quarter-2018/many-americans-still-lack-retirement-savings?print=true#1.
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Recent trends since the 1980s have given American workers more individual responsibility and
control in retirement planning. During this period, companies shifted their worker retirement
arrangements from dened benets plans to dened contribution plans, such as 401(k) plans.
482
Dened contribution plans may be potentially better suited to an environment in which workers
frequently change jobs,
483
while giving individuals greater responsibility for prudent investment of
their retirement savings.
With respect to dened contribution and other self-directed retirement plans, individuals must
decide when to start saving, how much to invest, which investments to select for an asset alloca-
tion that matches their risk tolerances, and what to do when transitioning between employers.
Individuals may be ill-equipped to make these complex decisions, which can have signicant
consequences for their nancial security in retirement.
484
According to one survey of individuals
who had self-directed retirement savings, 53% were either not comfortable or were “only slightly
comfortable making these decisions.
485
For 59% of workers, the survey found that it was their lack
of interest or capacity for saving in a 401(k) plan that limited their participation, rather than their
employer not providing a plan to invest in.
486
Although providing 401(k) plan participants with advice would help them manage their accounts,
a recent industry survey found that only a minority of plan sponsors were oering investment
advice to plan participants.
487
In 2016, GAO reported that plan sponsors might be reluctant to
provide this investment advice due to the costs and concerns of potential legal liability.
488
Digital Tools
Digital nancial planning brings the possibility of expanded access to advice for a larger number
of Americans. Although personal nance software has been available since the early 1990s, these
digital tools have become more sophisticated when combined with data aggregation. rough
the use of data analytics, machine learning, and other computing advances, the costs of providing
digital nancial planning have declined signicantly. Compared to human nancial planners,
digital nancial planning services are often available to individuals with minimal balances.
489
482. GAO Fintech Report, at 9.
483. Employee Benefits Research Institute, Employee Tenure Trends, 1983-2016 (Sept. 17, 2017), at 3, available at:
https://www.ebri.org/pdf/notespdf/EBRI_Notes_v38no9_Tenure.20Sept17.pdf (indicating that employee tenure
data from the U.S. Census Bureau shows that the notion of a worker staying with the same employer for most
of his or her career has never existed for most works and will continue not to exist).
484.
U.S. Government Accountability Office, The Nation’s Retirement System: A Comprehensive Re-evaluation is
Needed to Better Promote Future Retirement Security (Oct. 2017), at 22, available at: https://www.gao.gov/
assets/690/687797.pdf.
485.
Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Report on the Economic Well-Being of U.S. Households
in 2016 (May 2017), at 59, available at: https://www.federalreserve.gov/publications/files/2016-report-eco-
nomic-well-being-us-households-201705.pdf.
486.
Id. at 60.
4 87. Plan Sponsor Council of America, 60th Annual Survey of Profit Sharing and 401(k) Plans (Feb. 2018) (finding
that about one-third of plan sponsor respondents offer investment advice to participants).
488.
U.S. Government Accountability Office, 401(k) Plans: DOL Could Take Steps to Improve Retirement Income
Options for Plan Participants (Aug. 2016), at 47, available at: https://www.gao.gov/assets/680/678924.pdf.
489.
GAO Fintech Report, at 13-14.
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Investment assets managed by digital advisers are projected to grow from $100 billion in 2017
to $385 billion by 2021.
490
More importantly, digital nancial planning is available to younger individuals who are entering
the work force, a stage at which their wealth is typically quite small. Establishing a pattern of
saving and investing during the early period of an individual’s career can signicantly increase the
probability of long-term success in accumulating wealth and building retirement savings.
491
Digital nancial planning is currently oered directly to consumers via the Internet, and some
services require little, if any, interaction with a human advisor. Other methods for providing digital
nancial advice may emerge in the future, such as through the use of chatbots.
492
ese technologi-
cal developments have resulted in certain market participants seeking to signicantly undercut the
pricing of human nancial planners in an eort to attract clients and their assets.
At the same time, digital tools have altered the way traditional nancial planners provide services to
their clients. Data aggregators, for example, reduce the need of nancial planners to engage in the
menial task of compiling information from multiple client accounts, thereby freeing up time for
more value-added activities.
493
For nancial planners that are registered as brokers or investment
advisers, data aggregation can be used to provide a more complete picture of a client’s nancial
situation for purposes of suitability assessments or providing advice under a duciary standard.
494
Firms that employ human nancial planners have reported that digital tools also improved the
consistency of advice provided to clients.
Another model for providing nancial planning services has also emerged. Referred to as the
“hybrid” model, this model utilizes an internet or mobile-based interface for primary interaction
with clients but also allows for contact with a human nancial planner. Typically, ntech nancial
planning entities provide access to a human nancial planner for an additional fee or with a higher-
level service package.
Digital nancial planning oers a wide range of services, some of which are more comprehensive
than others. is is similar to how traditional rms market nancial planning services, but may
490. Liz Skinner, 5 Robo-Advisers with the Most Client Assets, Investment News (June 6, 2017), available at: http://
www.investmentnews.com/article/20170606/FREE/170539987/5-robo-advisers-with-the-most-client-assets
(citing a report from Cerulli Associates).
491.
Employee Benefits Security Administration, U.S. Department of Labor, New Employee Savings Tips – Time Is
on Your Side, available at: https://www.dol.gov/sites/default/files/ebsa/about-ebsa/our-activities/resource-cen-
ter/publications/new-employee-savings-tips-time-is-on-your-side.pdf (last accessed July 10, 2018).
492.
See, e.g., Sharon Adarlo, Will Small Clients be Claimed by Chatbots?, Financial
Planning (Apr. 18, 2018), available at: https://www.financial-planning.com/news/
whats-the-word-on-chatbots-in-wealth-management?brief=00000153-6773-d15a-abd7-efff45d10000.
493.
See, e.g., Heidrick & Struggles, Future of Digital Financial Advice (Dec. 2016), at 19-20, available at: https://
centerforfinancialplanning.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/Future-of-Digital-Financial-Advice.pdf (summariz-
ing the work of the Certified Financial Planner Board of Standards Digital Advice Working Group).
494.
Lowell Putnam, Quovo, FINRA Standards Depend on Account Aggregation, Despite Alert’s
Caution, blog post (Apr. 13, 2018), available at: https://www.quovo.com/fintech-blog/the-ecosystem/
finra-standards-depend-on-account-aggregation-despite-alerts-caution/.
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only oer limited advice.
495
Digital nancial planning is oered by ntech applications, banks and
brokerage rms, and technology companies. ey often use the services of a data aggregator to
centralize information about a consumer’s accounts from multiple nancial institutions.
e scope and nature of digital nancial planning continue to evolve.
496
Digital nancial plan-
ning services oer the ability to aggregate all accounts in one location and to produce balance
sheet type information, such as net worth and investment portfolio summaries. Other services
include budgeting, goal setting, and bill payment functions. Some tools compare a consumer’s
expenses and savings to peer groups in order to change the consumer’s behavior, while others
analyze spending patterns based on nancial transaction data. Using computer algorithms, the
service will make recommendations, such as to reduce expenses in particular areas or to consider
re-nancing outstanding debt. Some services automatically send funds to investment accounts,
such as by rounding up spending transactions or diverting anticipated savings.
Digital nancial planning can oer advice with respect to securities, loan products, or insurance
products. Computer algorithms can provide advice that recommends an asset allocation and
portfolio investments based on the consumer’s responses to questions regarding risk tolerance,
time horizons, and other factors. Some services provide exposure to recommended asset classes
through investment vehicles like low-cost, exchange-traded funds. Investment portfolios may be
automatically rebalanced to remain within recommended allocations and receive advice on tax loss
harvesting strategies.
Some digital nancial planning services directly charge consumers, through either a xed-fee or
a percentage of assets under management. Other programs oer a limited set of services for free
and allow the consumer to “buy up” for additional services. Some services do not impose any fee
directly on the consumer, but instead have relationships with nancial partners that pay a fee for
inclusion in the range of products that the service may recommend.
Issues and Recommendations
Financial planning has not been directly regulated by the federal or state governments through
licensing or registration requirements.
497
Instead, regulatory oversight is triggered either by engag-
ing in certain activities as part of oering nancial planning services or by oering these services
by an individual who is regulated under another regime.
495. Financial Planning Coalition, Consumers Are Confused and Harmed: The Case for Regulation of Financial
Planners, White Paper (Oct. 2014), at 16-19, available at: http://financialplanningcoalition.com/wp-content/
uploads/2014/06/Financial-Planning-Coalition-Regulatory-Standards-White-Paper-Final.pdf (“FPC White Paper”).
496.
Cf. Michael Kitces, The Six Levels of Account Aggregation #FinTech and PFM Portals for
Financial Advisors, blog post (Oct. 9, 2017), available at: https://www.kitces.com/blog/
six-levels-account-aggregation-pfm-fintech-solutions-accounts-advice-automation/.
4 97.
Some states have adopted laws regulating the conduct of financial planners, but they do not require licens-
ing or registration as a financial planner. The definition of a financial planner under state law can vary. For exam-
ple, Nevada’s law applies only to persons offering advice for compensation “upon the investment of money or
upon provision for income to be needed in the future” but Minnesota’s law applies to any person “engaged in
the business of financial planning.” See Nev. Rev. Stat. § 628A; Minn. Stat. § 45.026. Both the Minnesota and
Nevada laws impose a fiduciary duty upon financial planners, but, for example, Connecticut only requires disclo-
sure of whether a financial planner has a fiduciary duty. See Conn. Pub. Act No. 17-120 (July 5, 2017).
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Many nancial planners provide investment advice and are therefore regulated by the SEC or state
securities regulators.
498
Securities regulators have responded to the recent rise in digital investment
advice by providing guidance related to compliance obligations under existing laws and regula-
tions.
499
Securities regulators also have antifraud authority for nonsecurities advice that stems from
the advisory relationship.
500
Financial planning services provided by agents in connection with the sale of insurance products
are regulated by state insurance regulators. Financial planners providing advice to plan participants
in 401(k) plans are also subject to the obligations and prohibitions under Employee Retirement
Income Security Act of 1974 and DOL rules. Although the Bureau has the authority to regulate
consumer nancial products or services, including nancial advisory services (other than services
relating to securities provided by a person regulated by the SEC or a state securities regulator, and
who is acting in a regulated capacity) provided to consumers for individual nancial matters or
relating to proprietary nancial products or services,
501
the Bureau generally does not have author-
ity over accountants, tax preparers, and attorneys.
502
Financial planning activities conducted by banks and its employees are subject to supervision by
bank regulators and the Bureau. Accountants and attorneys oer nancial planning services that
are subject to oversight by state boards of accountancy and state bars, which may include regula-
tion for conicts of interest.
Under the current regulatory structure, nancial planners could be subject to regulation by multiple
regulators at the federal and state levels, with each regulator responsible for the specic activities
falling within that regulator’s purview. Treasury has concerns as to whether the current regulatory
structure is ecient and appropriately rationalized. For example, a number of digital nancial
planning tools do not provide advice on 401(k) accounts, and some participants in outreach
discussions indicated that regulatory compliance concerns were a factor in such decisions. Given
that 401(k) account balances may account for a signicant portion of an individual’s investment
portfolio, the lack of advice on such accounts will not advance Americans’ ability to save for retire-
ment and accumulate wealth.
498. Applicability of the Investment Advisers Act to Financial Planners, Pension Consultants, and Other Persons
Who Provide Investment Advisory Services as a Component of Other Financial Services (Oct. 8, 1987) [52
Fed. Reg. 38400 (Oct. 16, 1987)].
499.
See Division of Investment Management, U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, IM Guidance Update
2017-12: Robo-Advisers (Feb. 2017), available at: https://www.sec.gov/investment/im-guidance-2017-02.pdf;
Financial Industry Regulatory Authority, Report on Digital Investment Advice (Mar. 2016), available at: https://
www.finra.org/sites/default/files/digital-investment-advice-report.pdf.
500.
Under the antifraud provisions of the Investment Advisers Act, there is no requirement that fraudulent behav-
ior by an investment adviser be in connection with the purchase or sale of securities. See 15 U.S.C. § 80b-6(1)
and (2).
501.
12 U.S.C. §§ 5481(15)(A)(viii) and 5491(a). A financial product or service does not include activities relating
to the writing of insurance. See 12 U.S.C. § 5481(15)(C).
502.
12 U.S.C. § 5517.
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Recommendations
Numerous approaches could be undertaken to rationalize the regulatory framework for nancial
planning. For instance, one could focus regulatory responsibility exclusively within a single federal
regulator, either new or existing. Another could be to create a self-regulatory organization (SRO)
that would be subject to oversight by one or more federal regulators. e SRO could be responsible
for promulgating rules, conducting inspections, and undertaking enforcement, as there are cur-
rently no widely applicable regulatory standards for those oering, or claiming to oer, nancial
planning advice that include competency standards and standards of conduct.
503
Alternatively,
the SRO could only promulgate rules, and rely on a regulator to carry out examination and
enforcement.
Treasury believes that appropriate protection for clients of nancial planners, digital and oth-
erwise, can be achieved without imposing either a fragmented regulatory structure or creating
new regulatory entities. Treasury has concerns that the current regulatory structure discourages
the provision of integrated investment advice for assets held in retirement and nonretirement
accounts. A patchwork of regulatory authority makes it more costly for nancial planners — costs
that will be passed on to consumers in the form of higher costs or reduced services. e fragmented
regulatory structure also potentially presents unnecessary barriers to the development of digital
nancial planning services.
Treasury recommends that an appropriate existing regulator of a nancial planner, whether federal
or state, be tasked as the primary regulator with oversight of that nancial planner and other
regulators should exercise regulatory and enforcement deference to the primary regulator. To the
extent that the nancial planner is providing investment advice, the relevant regulator will likely
be the SEC or a state securities regulator.
503. FPC White Paper, at 12-15.
Enabling the Policy Environment
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Agile and Effective Regulation for a
21st Century Economy
Introduction
While the nancial services industry has been a frequent adopter of new technology, the cur-
rent scale and pace of technological change has left many regulators re-examining their regulatory
frameworks for shortcomings from a perspective of both regulatory eciency and eectiveness.
e United States has historically led the world in innovation in nancial services. Innovation has
played a factor in making the U.S. capital markets the largest, deepest, and most vibrant in the
world and has been of critical importance in supporting the U.S. economy. But the United States
cannot take its leading position in innovation for granted. As the rest of the world takes measures
to improve its ability to create, develop, and deploy innovative new products and services in the
nancial sector, the United States risks losing out by failing to provide appropriate regulatory
clarity and assurances, and remove unnecessary barriers to innovation.
The drive to develop new technologies is relentless,
expanding to more actors with lower barriers of entry,
and moving at accelerating speed. New technologies
include advanced computing, “big data” analytics,
artificial intelligence, autonomy, robotics, directed
energy, hypersonics, and biotechnology — the very
technologies that ensure we will be able to fight and
win the wars of the future.
The Honorable James N. Mattis,
Secretary of Defense
504
Regulatory Sandboxes
Competitive and free markets help foster economic growth. New ideas can facilitate market e-
ciency, spurring improvements to services and products. Not all innovations will succeed; some
might even cause harm. Regulation should address and potentially mitigate negative externalities.
A regulatory environment with largely binary outcomes — either approval or disapproval — may
lack appropriate exibility for dealing with innovations and often results in extensive delays, after
which the innovation has become obsolete.
e regulatory environment should instead be exible so that rms can experiment without the
threat of enforcement actions that would imperil the existence of a rm. Innovating is an iterative
process, and regulator feedback can play a helpful role while upholding safeguards and standards.
504. Secretary Jim Mattis, Summary of the 2018 National Defense Strategy of the United States of America, available
at: https://www.defense.gov/Portals/1/Documents/pubs/2018-National-Defense-Strategy-Summary.pdf.
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Treasury recognizes that U.S. regulators already employ a number of methods in support of inno-
vation and encourages them to build on their eorts. Some examples include:
• Outreach eorts conducted throughout the United States to meet with innovators
• Creation of an agency innovation oce so that innovators have a central point of contact
• Issuance of guidance, exemptive orders, or no-action letters, which may have conditions
or be time-limited, to permit experimentation in the marketplace
• Agency-wide working groups that span multiple divisions and oces to address new
technology trends
• Publication of white papers, speeches, and other materials discussing innovations and
technology
• Engagement with foreign regulators on new developments, including cross-border
collaboration agreements
During outreach discussions with Treasury, however, many stakeholders expressed frustration with the
sheer number of agencies at the federal and state levels that need to be consulted when bringing a new
product or service to market. Frequently, rms nd that it is not even clear which agencies — or which
units within those agencies — need to be engaged. e result is that innovators, particularly smaller
rms, face signicant and unnecessary burdens in terms of time, money, and opportunity costs.
e fragmented nature of the U.S. nancial regulatory system undercuts eorts by regulators to
support innovation. For example, a no-action letter or exemptive relief from one agency may be
of limited use without assurance that other agencies with jurisdiction will provide comparable
relief. Fragmentation also raises the likelihood of inconsistency among regulators. To be eective,
a coordinated eort is needed to obtain appropriate relief across the marketplace.
New technologies, like predictive data analytics, articial intelligence, and blockchain or distrib-
uted ledger technology, are examples of promising innovations that could be used by nancial
services rms. ey are also technologies for which regulatory treatment may be uncertain, if for
no other reason than that innovative technology requires time to mature. From the perspective of
regulators, these technologies may pose unknown benets and risks. In such situations, it would
be benecial for regulators to permit meaningful experimentation in the real world, subject to
appropriate limitations.
Recommendations
Treasury recommends that federal and state nancial regulators establish a unied solution that
coordinates and expedites regulatory relief under applicable laws and regulations to permit mean-
ingful experimentation for innovative products, services, and processes. Such eorts would form,
in essence, a “regulatory sandbox” that can enhance and promote innovation. e solution should
be based on the following principles:
• Promote the adoption and growth of innovation and technological transformation in
nancial services
• Provide equal access to companies in various stages of the business lifecycle (e.g., start-
ups and incumbents)
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• Delineate clear and public processes and procedures, including a process by which rms
enter and exit
• Provide targeted relief across multiple regulatory frameworks
• Oer the ability to achieve international regulatory cooperation or appropriate deference
where applicable
• Maintain nancial integrity, consumer protections, and investor protections commensu-
rate with the scope of the project
• Increase the timeliness of regulator feedback oered throughout the product or service
development lifecycle
Treasury will work with federal and state nancial regulators to design such a solution in a timely
manner. e alternative of establishing a formal sandbox overseen by a single regulator would
require preemption of a rm’s other regulators, and in some cases may even subject a rm to a
new regulator that is unfamiliar with its operations; it is also very unclear who that single regu-
lator would be. If nancial regulators are unable to address these objectives, however, Treasury
recommends that Congress consider legislation to provide for a single process consistent with the
principles set forth above, including preemption of state laws if necessary.
e parameters of any regulatory sandbox should be designed with the participation of the private
sector and contain appropriate metrics for testing, including sample size and development periods
appropriate to these endeavors, to ensure the eectiveness of product and service development.
International Efforts in Financial Technology
e ongoing attempt to balance innovation and regulation has spawned new regulatory
initiatives, public-private partnerships, and investment schemes across both developed and
emerging economies. In an eort to drive innovation, domestic investment, and eective new
regulatory approaches, nancial authorities abroad have endeavored to establish various “inno-
vation facilitators.” In a recent survey by the Financial Stability Board and Basel Committee
on Banking Supervision, authorities provided information about their respective domestic
approaches toward innovation facilitators in three distinct categories: innovation hubs, accel-
erators, and regulatory sandboxes.
505
Innovation hubs such as LabCFTC provide access points
to regulators for ntech rms, which has the dual benet of providing rms more regulatory
clarity and facilitating information sharing with regulators. Accelerators, such as the various
grants and schemes in Singapore’s Startup SG ecosystem, oer rms incentives to innovate and
start businesses. Regulatory sandboxes like Hong Kong’s Fintech Supervisory Sandbox provide
an environment for rms to conduct pilot trials of nancial innovations under lower regula-
tory burdens than might traditionally be required for the same service provided in a dierent
way, while oering the authorities insights and feedback on new approaches.
505. Basel Committee on Banking Supervision, Sound Practices: Implications of Fintech Developments for Banks
and Bank Supervisors (Feb. 2018), available at: https://www.bis.org/bcbs/publ/d431.pdf.
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Sandbox Case Studies
Monetary Authority of Singapore
e Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) has introduced a regulatory sandbox — a policy
framework that relaxes specic legal and regulatory requirements for a xed time period for
ntech and nancial institutions experimenting with innovative products and services. Firms
apply for entry into the sandbox, and if approved, MAS will determine what specic regulations
it is prepared to relax for participating rms. In its guidelines for the regulatory sandbox, MAS
notes that the sandbox is not meant to help rms circumvent legal and regulatory require-
ments, but is instead meant to help encourage eciency and manage risks in the nancial
sector.
506
e sandbox may not be appropriate, for instance, if the proposed innovation is
similar to a service already being oered in Singapore or if the applicant has not demonstrated
an adequate level of due diligence. e guidelines are also clear that the nancial service should
have a clear plan to deploy in Singapore or be able to provide some benet for Singapore’s
market and consumers. If a rm is successful in its experimentation, then upon exiting the
sandbox, it must fully comply with Singapore’s legal and regulatory requirements. e MAS
sandbox accepts applications at any time and, if needed, MAS will permit rms to extend their
time in the sandbox on a case-by-case basis.
United Kingdom Financial Conduct Authority
e U.K. Financial Conduct Authority (FCA) launched a regulatory sandbox in June 2016 as
part of the FCA’s Project Innovate, an initiative started in 2014 to encourage innovation with
an explicit mandate to promote competition in U.K. nancial services.
507
e FCA selects
rms in cohorts regardless of a rm’s size or maturity, and allows these rms to test within the
sandbox on a small scale while providing a degree of regulatory clarity and guidance. Firms in
the sandbox are assigned a dedicated case ocer and may be provided with targeted regulatory
assistance, such as waivers or no-action letters, to facilitate a customized regulatory environ-
ment for each test. Before testing in the sandbox, however, rms must meet authorization
requirements relevant for the proposed activity and must meet sucient, bespoke safeguards to
mitigate consumer harm. Upon transitioning out of the sandbox, rms are required to submit
a nal report highlighting the outcomes of the test. e FCA has also indicated an interest
in establishing a global sandbox, where rms could potentially participate and conduct tests
spanning more than one jurisdiction.
Agile Regulation
e pace of technological development and its applications to nancial services have increased
dramatically. It is critical that nancial regulators stay abreast of developments and establish mech-
anisms for adopting appropriate regulation and guidance accordingly without stiing innovations
506. Monetary Authority of Singapore, Fintech Regulatory Sandbox Guidelines (Nov. 2016), available at: http://www.
mas.gov.sg/~/media/Smart%20Financial%20Centre/Sandbox/FinTech%20Regulatory%20Sandbox%20
Guidelines%2019Feb2018.pdf.
5 07.
Financial Conduct Authority, Regulatory Sandbox Lessons Learned Report (Oct. 2017), available at: https://
www.fca.org.uk/publication/research-and-data/regulatory-sandbox-lessons-learned-report.pdf.
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that require time to mature. Regulators must be more agile than in the past in order to suc-
cessfully uphold their missions without creating unnecessary barriers to innovation. is requires
principles- and performance-based regulation that enables the private sector to adopt innovative,
technology-based compliance solutions.
In addition, regulators need to understand technology on the same timeline as business. To do this,
nancial regulators need to engage with the private sector to test and understand new technologies
and innovations as they arise. Agile regulation requires regulators to acquire and understand exist-
ing and emerging technologies, to engage with developers and rst-movers, and to hire and retain
sta with the appropriate technical expertise. To this end, Treasury believes that regulators should
increase eorts to proactively engage in collaborative dialogue with the private sector as innovations
arise. Regulators should be looking to facilitate U.S. strengths in technology and work toward the
common goals of fostering markets and promoting growth through responsible innovation.
Procurement
As new technologies are introduced in the nancial services sector, nancial regulators require
the ability to work interactively with them in order to understand them, determine potential
regulatory or operational implications, and evaluate them for potential use by the regulator
itself. Regulators’ hands, however, are frequently tied when it comes to obtaining such technol-
ogy. Although innovators and other participants are often willing to provide the technology or
proofs of concept to the regulator to help improve their understanding, statutory and regulatory
requirements can either expressly prohibit, or eectively prohibit, the acquisition of the technol-
ogy as either a gift or a purchase.
Under principles of federal appropriations law, federal agencies may not augment their appropria-
tions from outside sources absent specic statutory authority.
508
Whether an agency may accept
goods and services often depends on whether the agency has statutory authority to accept gifts.
Because of the longstanding principle against augmenting appropriations, federal agencies may
not accept for their own use gifts of money or other property in the absence of specic statutory
authority.
509
us, even though many ntech companies are willing to provide regulators with new
technology at no cost in order to demonstrate viability or to help expedite the regulatory process,
federal regulators may be precluded from accepting such oers.
If a federal nancial regulator wants to purchase a particular technology and has appropriated
funds, federal acquisition regulations can make it dicult to do so in a timely enough man-
ner to justify the purchase. For example, procurement regulations generally require an agency to
rst establish a dened need for the acquisition, describe the requirements to satisfy the agency
need, and then either engage in sealed bidding or competitive negotiation, which can take many
months. In outreach meetings with Treasury, some regulators indicated that it can be dicult to
identify a specic agency need or describe exact requirements for a potential technological solution
requiring incubation, and that, even if they could, the time to complete the acquisition would
508. U.S. Government Accountability Office, Principles of Federal Appropriations Law, Volume II (3rd ed. Feb
2006), at 6-162, available at: https://www.gao.gov/assets/210/202819.pdf.
509.
Id. at 6-222.
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be too lengthy to be eective. e nature of innovative new technologies — not yet widespread,
often without direct substitutes, and materially advancing in technology in matters of weeks not
months — does not t the traditional competitive bidding and procurement processes set out by
federal acquisition regulations. Even the process a rm must undergo to be considered an eligible
bidder for a government contract often dissuades rms from entering the bidder pool, particularly
younger companies with less resources and newer technologies that are bound to change before
the process is completed. ese challenges signicantly limit some nancial regulators’ ability to
better understand, test, and procure new technologies, potentially constraining the eectiveness
and eciency of federal regulation.
Federal acquisition law establishes “other transaction authority,” which allows select government
agencies to develop agreements that do not need to adhere to a standard format or include terms
and conditions required in traditional approaches to acquisition.
510
Other transaction authority has
been authorized for the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD), U.S. Department of Energy, U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS), U.S.
Department of Transportation, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Federal Aviation
Administration, Transportation Security Administration, Domestic Nuclear Detection Oce,
Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy, and certain programs at the National Institutes of
Health. Other transaction authority can be granted on a permanent or temporary basis.
Other transaction authority has been used by these agencies to facilitate critical understanding
and application of new technology by the government. DOD launched the Defense Innovation
Unit (Experimental) (DIUx) in order to accelerate the development, procurement, and integration
of commercially derived disruptive capabilities.
511
As DIUx has noted, the state of innovation is
“dramatically dierent from past decades when key technologies were developed in government
labs,” with many new technological developments originating from the commercial sector.
512
Since
June 2016, DIUx has initiated 61 prototype projects with an average time of only 90 days from
rst contact to contract award.
513
Similarly, using other transaction authority, DHS established its
Next Generation Cyber Infrastructure Apex program (“Cyber Apex”), which seeks out solutions
to ll cybersecurity gaps and protection of critical systems and networks.
514
Cyber Apex is work-
ing with a consortium, which includes private companies in the nancial services sector, to test
existing marketplace solutions, while simultaneously working with a DHS innovation program in
Silicon Valley in search of early-stage solutions.
515
510. U.S. Government Accountability Office, Federal Acquisitions: Use of “Other Transaction” Agreements Limited
and Mostly for Research and Development (Jan. 2016), available at: https://www.gao.gov/assets/680/674534.
pdf.
511.
Defense Innovation Unit (Experimental), U.S. Department of Defense, Commercial Solutions Opening (CSO),
at 1, available at: https://www.diux.mil/download/datasets/736/DIUx-Commercial-Solutions-Opening-White-
Paper.pdf (last accessed June 29, 2018).
512.
Defense Innovation Unit (Experimental), U.S. Department of Defense, Annual Report 2017, at 2, available at:
https://www.diux.mil/download/datasets/1774/DIUx%20Annual%20Report%202017.pdf.
513.
Id. at 4.
514. Cyber Security Division, U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Technology Guide 2018, at 6, available at:
https://www.hsdl.org/?view&did=808790.
515.
Id.
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Recommendations
Treasury recommends that Congress enact legislation authorizing nancial regulators to use other
transaction authority for research and development and proof-of-concept technology projects.
Regulators should use this authority to engage with the private sector to better understand new
technologies and innovations and their implications for market participants, and to carry out their
regulatory responsibilities more eectively and eciently. Using the expertise of the private sector
in developing regulatory tools will generally produce more optimal solutions than restricting input
to be entirely in-house.
Regtech
In the aftermath of the nancial crisis, nancial services companies have incurred increased
compliance costs in an environment of enhanced regulatory scrutiny. is dynamic has led to
the rise of rms specically focused on delivering products and services that assist regulated
entities in meeting compliance requirements. ese rms have been labeled by some as “reg-
tech” companies.
Regtech within nancial services has grown rapidly as advances in technology have made it
possible to deliver automated solutions for compliance tasks that are otherwise performed
manually. Estimates suggest there are some 80-250 rms currently operating that primarily
serve the nancial services industry’s compliance and regulatory needs. e range of services
is broad and includes activities such as customer identication/verication and transaction
monitoring for Bank Secrecy Act anti-money laundering/countering the nancing of terrorism;
antifraud surveillance; risk assessment and management; market conduct services; origination
processes; and regulatory requirement monitoring.
516
Financial services companies may benet from partnering with regtech rms that have
proprietary technologies or processes such companies may not be able to build in-house,
particularly smaller entities, such as community banks, that may not have the nancial
resources to develop internally the technologies necessary to achieve marginal reductions in
risk and compliance costs. One report on regtech rms estimates that “governance, risk and
compliance (GRC) costs account for 15% to 20% of the total ‘run the bank’ cost base of
most major banks. GRC demand drives roughly 40% of costs for ‘change the bank’ projects
under way.”
517
Regulators at both the federal and state levels can have a signicant impact on the regtech
industry through not only the compliance requirements they set, but also the means by which
examination for compliance is executed. Some emerging regtech solutions aim to facilitate
more ecient communication between regulated nancial institutions and regulators by
providing APIs or distributed ledger technology-based channels to share information, such
516. See Bain and Company, Banking Regtechs to the Rescue? (2016), available at: http://www.bain.com/Images/
BAIN_BRIEF_Banking_Regtechs_to_the_Rescue.pdf; and PricewaterhouseCoopers, Regtech in Financial
Services (2018), available at: https://www.pwc.com/us/en/industries/financial-services/research-institute/top-
issues/regtech.html.
5 17.
See Bain and Company, at 3.
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as suspicious transaction reports and supporting information, or other mandatory reports,
with central banks and regulators, and by providing digital channels for further inquiries
and responses.
Treasury encourages regulators to appropriately tailor regulations to ensure innovative technol-
ogy companies providing tools to regulated nancial services companies can continue to drive
technological eciencies and cost reductions. Additionally, Treasury encourages regulators to
seek out and explore innovative partnerships with nancial services companies and regtech
rms alike to better understand new technologies that have the potential to improve the execu-
tion of their own regulatory responsibilities more eectively and eciently.
Engagement
Beyond experimentation, broad regulatory engagement with nancial services companies on mul-
tiple levels is essential. Treasury commends the eorts by nancial regulators to create labs, work-
ing groups, innovation oces, and other channels for industry participants to engage directly with
regulators. ese discussions provide regulators with visibility into technology developments and
provide an opportunity to receive real-time feedback from regulators on their ideas. Additionally,
they encourage an ongoing dialogue, lessening the likelihood that nancial services rms are oper-
ating based on erroneous information or misinterpretation of regulations.
However, a number of reasons have been provided for why some in the private sector may be
reluctant to communicate openly with regulators. A few participants in Treasury outreach meet-
ings raised concerns that conversations with regulators could be used as a reason to initiate an
enforcement investigation.
518
Participants argued that if regulators are not in a position during
engagement sessions to provide either assurances or helpful advice on how innovations can comply
with the rules, then there is little for the market participant to gain from a one-way engagement and
signicant risk of being delayed and losing the chance to be the rst to market. Some rms faulted
nancial regulators for having an “enforcement rst” perspective, not being timely in providing
useful guidance, and not having a sucient appreciation of how delay and regulatory uncertainty
can result in a new product or service being overtaken by a competitor.
Recommendations
Treasury recommends that nancial regulators pursue robust engagement eorts with industry and
establish clear points of contact for industry and consumer outreach. e outcome of engagement
should be to create an environment where growth can occur with appropriate protections while
reducing compliance costs. Both regulators and the private sector must recognize that they have a sym-
biotic relationship that is needed to support the U.S. economy and maintain global competitiveness.
Treasury recommends that nancial regulators increase their eorts to bridge the gap between
regulators and start-ups, including eorts to engage in dierent parts of the country rather than
518. On the other hand, Treasury acknowledges that some firms may have had reason to believe that their activi-
ties might be subject to regulation and chose not to bring their activities to the attention of regulators. See, e.g.,
Peter Van Valkenburgh, Coin Center, Framework for Securities Regulation of Cryptocurrencies (Jan. 2016),
available at: https://coincenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/SECFramework2.5.pdf (noting that some
cryptocurrencies may “functionally resemble securities” when sold to investors).
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requiring entities to come to Washington, D.C. Unlike incumbent nancial institutions with
well-established government relations oces, start-ups may be less familiar with how to engage
with federal regulators but equally critical for regulators to engage with. While start-ups must
comply with existing laws and regulations, regulators should seek to understand the business
models of these entities that may be subject to their authorities. Further, Treasury recommends
that nancial regulators periodically review existing regulations as innovations occur and new
technology is developed and determine whether their regulations fulll their original purpose in
the least costly manner.
Treasury recommends that nancial regulators engage at both the domestic and international lev-
els, as nancial technology in many cases is borderless. Treasury encourages international initiatives
by nancial regulators to increase their knowledge of ntech developments in other nations, such
as the recent agreement between the CFTC and the U.K. Financial Conduct Authority.
519
Education
More eorts need to be taken to close the knowledge gap, both between private industry and
regulators, and among and within nancial regulators themselves. In outreach meetings with
Treasury, many industry participants from both the nancial services industry and the technology
industry indicated that regulators and examiners often lack basic knowledge about the technologies
employed by rms. Participants also indicated that technical sophistication often varied among
regulators, adding to diculties in navigating an already fragmented regulatory system.
Treasury acknowledges that it is challenging for the U.S. government to attract and retain talented
human capital, as it lacks the ability to compete for such talent with incentives such as higher
salaries and equity compensation. While the attraction of highly qualied technical personnel to
the private sector may disadvantage the government, it is surely a benet for U.S. rms leading the
world in innovation.
Because innovation in technology occurs at such a rapid pace, Treasury recognizes that it may be
impractical for individuals to leave the private sector temporarily and commit to public service
for an extended period of time without being at signicant risk of not being able to re-enter the
technology sector at a competitive level. us, the nature of the technology industry creates a
structural close hold on its workforce. Despite these dierences, Treasury believes that a number of
steps can be taken to improve the technology-savviness of the regulatory workforce.
Currently, some universities have programs that bring policymakers and the technology industry
together through practical simulations and experiential learning, requiring each to walk in the
shoes of the other. ese activities, for instance when applied to topics like cybersecurity, help
policymakers to understand and appreciate the demands of managing a corporation and a rm’s
duties that may cause the rm to take various actions in response to regulatory guidance. ese
types of experiential learning opportunities are critical to bridging the knowledge gap between
regulators and the entities they regulate.
519. U.S. Commodity Futures Trading Commission, Press Release No. 7698-18 (Feb. 19, 2018), available at:
https://www.cftc.gov/PressRoom/PressReleases/pr7698-18.
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Another approach to bridging this gap is to bring experts into a regulatory agency on temporary
assignment. Some agencies, like the SEC, already have existing professional fellowship programs
in which outside industry veterans join the agency on a non-permanent basis and are subject to
extensive requirements to manage any conicts of interest that arise from their temporary hiatus
from the private sector. Regulators benet from exposure to the fellow’s knowledge, and the fellow
benets from exposure to the regulator’s mission and operations. e experience and understand-
ing of regulatory processes acquired during these fellowships is then shared by the participating
fellows upon returning to industry.
Since 2012, the U.S. Government has recruited Presidential Innovation Fellows to leverage outside
industry expertise to work with the government. e Presidential Innovation Fellows serve for a
12-month program, which can be extended for up to a total of four years. To date, none of the
nancial regulators have participated in the program. Recently, the OCC considered creating new
positions for Innovation Fellows as part of its eorts to better understand innovation. Treasury
encourages nancial regulators to consider establishing similar fellowship opportunities that would
focus on nancial technology, recognizing the likely shorter duration required to make such a
fellowship successful in attracting the right talent.
Critical Infrastructure
e transformational technologies and service oerings examined by this report in key areas
of nancial services have generated even further innovation leading to the re-architecting of
current technologies, applications, networks, and back-oce infrastructures. Cybersecurity,
resilience, and operational risk considerations are inseparable from any examination of these
technologies. Particularly when applied to nancial services, these developments directly
impact the nation’s critical infrastructure.
Increased reliance on emerging technologies yields benets as well as new risks, requiring devel-
opers to build for security, resiliency, and agility from the start, not as afterthoughts. Treasury
recommends that nancial regulators thoroughly consider cybersecurity and other operational
risks as new technologies are implemented, rms become increasingly interconnected, and
consumer data are shared among a growing number of rms, including third parties. e
task of ensuring that the country’s critical infrastructure — systems, networks, functions, and
data — remain available and reliable is increasingly complex as risks may reside throughout the
supply chain, not solely with the owner or operator. Furthermore, the supply chain includes a
mix of rms, operating under a range of cybersecurity risk proles — some may lack common
baseline cybersecurity protections and standards, and others, even regulated rms subject to
cybersecurity regulations, suer from diering interpretations and implementations of regula-
tory guidance. A rm with a more mature cybersecurity posture may additionally be exposed
to cybersecurity risks because its vendors or suppliers have not developed a similarly robust
cybersecurity posture.
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e Banking Report provided two recommendations regarding cybersecurity that Treasury
continues to endorse: (1) developing a common lexicon, and (2) harmonizing regula-
tions.
520
In addition to the work taking place within the Financial and Banking Information
Infrastructure Committee (FBIIC) to implement those recommendations, the FBIIC agen-
cies should neither stie innovation, nor mandate specic technology solutions; the FBIIC
agencies should remain technology neutral. Treasury additionally recommends that the
FBIIC consider establishing a technology working group charged with better understanding
the technologies that rms are increasingly relying upon, and staying well-informed regard-
ing innovation taking place within the sector.
Policy approaches to protect the nation’s critical infrastructure cannot focus solely on regula-
tion and the nancial regulators. Treasury will continue to partner with federal agencies to
better understand supply chain and third-party risks, and work directly with nancial services
rms, and across the critical infrastructure community, to address these challenges.
Treasury also encourages the sector to migrate away from the historical focus on threat, and
balance that with a focus on vulnerability identication and remediation. Broadly speaking,
the nancial services industry works very hard now to identify threats that exploit vulner-
abilities to create risk. Reducing vulnerabilities is as important, if not more so, as reducing
risk. When a vulnerability is found and closed, no one can exploit it. Alternatively, nding
one threat (such as a criminal enterprise) and shutting it down will still leave the vulnerability
available in a system for exploitation by other threats.
To this end, Treasury commits to leading a multiyear program with the nancial services
industry to identify, properly protect, and remediate vulnerabilities. Finally, Treasury supports
the industry’s continued eorts to promote and support the adoption of the National Institute
of Standards and Technology Cybersecurity Framework to reduce risks to the nation’s nancial
critical infrastructure.
International Approaches and Considerations
Overview
Across the world, many economies are shifting toward enabling more open and faster banking
services by enabling greater competition from nonbanks like ntechs and technology companies.
Primarily, open banking has entailed enabling greater access to nancial data or payment clearing
and settlement systems that were previously maintained by or provided to banks and unavailable
to nonbanks. Often, this enhanced access is provided through APIs. ese eorts are largely in
the preliminary stages of being implemented but are expected to signicantly shape how nancial
services are delivered in these economies.
520. The Banking Report, at 31.
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• India: India introduced the Unied Payments Interface (UPI) in August 2016, which allows
for open API interfaces for real-time payments.
521
e UPI, combined with other policy
eorts to minimize the use of cash, promote digital identity, and leverage mobile devices, has
created an environment where many new payment players are expected to emerge.
• Europe and the United Kingdom: e Revised Payment Services Directive (PSD2)
and the United Kingdom’s Open Banking initiative were intended to encourage greater
competition within these jurisdictions’ banking systems by allowing nonbank rms to
connect to banking payments and data systems through licensing regimes tailored for
these activities.
522
• Australia: Australia commissioned an open banking study, with the nal report published in
late 2017.
523
e government is now consulting on a nal decision and implementation.
• Hong Kong: Hong Kong is embarking on an initiative to launch a “new era of smart
banking.” is initiative was announced in September 2017,
524
and includes areas of
focus such as faster payments, ntech sandboxes, and open-banking APIs. To implement
the API aspect of the strategy, the Hong Kong Monetary Authority published an open
API framework in July 2018.
525
• Singapore: e Monetary Authority of Singapore has taken a more organic approach to
open banking. While the idea is being encouraged by the government, Singapore believes
that open banking will ultimately be more successful if it is led by the industry and not
done through government mandates.
526
Financial services companies have been working
toward APIs as the Association of Banks in Singapore released a voluntary API playbook
for banks in 2016.
527
521. National Payments Corporation of India, Press Release – NPCI’s Unified Payments Interface (UPI) Set to Go
Live (Aug. 25, 2016), available at: https://www.npci.org.in/sites/default/files/NPCIsUnifiedPaymentsInterface%
28UPI%29settogoliveAugust252018.pdf.
522.
Competition and Markets Authority, Retail Banking Market Investigation: Final Report (Aug. 9, 2016), at 441-
461, available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/57ac9667e5274a0f6c00007a/retail-bank-
ing-market-investigation-full-final-report.pdf; Directive (EU) 2015/2366 of the European Parliament and of the
Council (Nov. 25, 2015), available at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32015
L2366&from=EN (preamble).
523.
The Treasury (Australia), Review into Open Banking: Give Customers Choice, Convenience and Confidence (Dec.
2017), available at: https://static.treasury.gov.au/uploads/sites/1/2018/02/Review-into-Open-Banking-_For-web-1.pdf.
524.
Hong Kong Monetary Authority, Press Release – A New Era of Smart Banking, Press Release (Sept. 29,
2017), available at: http://www.hkma.gov.hk/eng/key-information/press-releases/2017/20170929-3.shtml.
525.
Hong Kong Monetary Authority, Press Release – Open API Framework for the Banking Sector and the Launch
of Open API on HKMA’s Website, Press Release (July 18, 2018), available at: http://www.hkma.gov.hk/eng/
key-information/press-releases/2018/20180718-5.shtml.
526.
Chanyaporn Chanjaroen and Haslinda Amin, Singapore Favors ‘Organic’ Policy in Move Toward Open
Banking, Bloomberg (Apr. 11, 2018), available at: https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-04-12/
singapore-favors-organic-policy-in-move-toward-open-banking.
5 27.
The Association of Banks in Singapore, Media Release – The Association of Banks in Singapore Issues
Finance-as-a-Service: API Playbook, Media Release (Nov. 16, 2016), available at: https://abs.org.sg/docs/
library/mediarelease_20161116.pdf.
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Within banking systems, there are also signicant eorts to modernize and increase core capa-
bilities, such as in the area of payments. Many jurisdictions around the world have embarked
on initiatives to increase the speed of wholesale payments through implementation of real-time
payment systems. As of mid-year 2017, it was estimated that there were 25 countries (primarily
large advanced economies) that had some type of live faster-payments system.
528
Impacting the provision of credit, nonbank digital lenders have emerged in many jurisdictions
that deploy automated lending platforms, provide rapid credit decisions, and are funded through
investment capital or peer-to-peer nancing.
529
Some of the most sizable activity and fastest growth
has occurred in U.S., Chinese, and U.K. markets. e U.S. market has grown rapidly to about $35
billion in 2016, or roughly three times 2014 levels. e U.K. market, while materially smaller, has
also roughly tripled since 2014 to £4.6 billion. Meanwhile, the Chinese market has grown to $246
billion in 2016, up by a factor of 10 from $24.3 billion in 2014.
530
Common across these markets
is an emphasis on providing credit to consumer and small business segments.
Data Regulation
e expanded access to nancial and nonnancial data enabled by movement toward more open
banking across multiple jurisdictions has raised critical issues with respect to protecting the con-
dentiality of consumers’ nancial and personal data. Multiple jurisdictions have adopted laws to
address some of these growing concerns with respect to their personal data. For example, Europe
recently introduced its General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), which attempts to create
a fundamental right to privacy that includes the right for people to have their data deleted and
transferred, among other provisions. e GDPR, however, has raised a number of questions about
implementation for companies, regardless of their country of domicile, that hold the personal
data of E.U. and U.K. citizens.
531
Uncertainties in the implementation of GDPR may also create
unnecessary barriers to trade and damage cross-border regulatory cooperation due to this lack
of regulatory clarity. Some other examples of eorts to add personal data protection regulations
528. FIS, Flavors of Fast: A Trip Around the World of Immediate Payments (4
th
ed. June 2017), at 29-55, available
at: https://www.fisglobal.com/flavors-of-fast-2017.
529.
See, e.g., World Economic Forum, The Future of FinTech: A Paradigm Shift in Small Business Finance (Oct.
2015), available at: http://www3.weforum.org/docs/IP/2015/FS/GAC15_The_Future_of_FinTech_Paradigm_
Shift_Small_Business_Finance_report_2015.pdf (discussing small business lending via marketplace lenders).
530.
Tania Ziegler et al., The 2017 Americas Alternative Finance Industry Report, University of Cambridge Judge
Business School Centre for Alternative Finance (May 2017), available at: https://www.jbs.cam.ac.uk/filead-
min/user_upload/research/centres/alternative-finance/downloads/2017-06-americas-alternative-finance-indus-
try-report.pdf (U.S. market); Kieran Garvey et al., Cultivating Growth: The 2nd Asia Pacific Region Alternative
Finance Industry Report, University of Cambridge Judge Business School Centre for Alternative Finance (Sept.
2017), available at: https://www.jbs.cam.ac.uk/fileadmin/user_upload/research/centres/alternative-finance/
downloads/2017-12-cultivating-growth.pdf (Chinese market); Bryan Zhang et al., Entrenching Innovation:
The 4th UK Alternative Finance Industry Report, University of Cambridge Judge Business School Centre for
Alternative Finance (Dec. 2017), available at: https://www.jbs.cam.ac.uk/fileadmin/user_upload/research/cen-
tres/alternative-finance/downloads/2017-12-21-ccaf-entrenching-innov.pdf (U.K. market).
531.
See, e.g., Secretary Wilbur Ross, E.U. Data Privacy Laws are Likely to Create Barriers to Trade, Financial
Times (May 30, 2018).
A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Nonbank Financials, Fintech, and Innovation
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include Hong Kong’s Personal Data Ordinance on Privacy in 2012,
532
Australia’s Consumer Data
Right,
533
and Singapore’s Personal Data Protection Act.
534
Business Models
Nonbanks and technology-focused companies have played active roles in developing payments
and credit-scoring systems to improve the access to and functionality of nancial services, and
to reduce costs. While access to payment clearing and settlement services is generally limited to
depositary institutions in the United States, some countries have provided mechanisms that allow
nonbanks to access those services. Notable examples include China and regions of Africa, where
the payments market is heavily reliant on nonbank-operated chat or mobile phone text message
systems.
In China, authorities have allowed nonbank ntechs to access payment systems to clear and
settle retail payment transactions. Large nonbank rms, like Ant Financial (AliPay) and Tencent
(WeChat) have established dominant positions in the Chinese mobile payments market, with
54.3% and 38.2% shares of the market, respectively, in 2017.
535
e mobile wallets and payments
mechanisms allow consumers to make payments while shopping online or through a messaging
app, and provide access to other nancial services oered within the ecosystem of the company
that owns the mobile wallet.
536
M-PESA, which began in Kenya, is another example of a nonbank payments company that oper-
ates outside a bank-centric payments ecosystem. It is operated by a telecommunications company
and allows customers to make and receive payments using a mobile phone, without the need for
a bank account. As of year-end 2016, M-PESA was live in 10 countries, had 29.5 million active
customers, and processed about 6 billion transactions.
537
Given the success of these nonbank models in some jurisdictions, it is not surprising that many
analysts are estimating that a signicant share of nancial institutions’ volumes and prots around
532. Privacy Commissioner for Personal Data (Hong Kong), The Ordinance at a Glance, available at: https://www.
pcpd.org.hk/english/data_privacy_law/ordinance_at_a_Glance/ordinance.html (last accessed June 29, 2018).
533.
As announced on November 26, 2017, the Consumer Data Right (CDR) is intended as an economy-wide
right, to be applied sector-by-sector on the designation of the Australian Treasurer. The Treasurer will be lead-
ing the development of the CDR, with the design of the broader CDR informed by the government’s response
to the recommendations of its open banking review. See The Treasury (Australia), Consumer Data Right – Fact
Sheet, available at: http://static.treasury.gov.au/uploads/sites/1/2018/02/180208-CDR-Fact-Sheet-1.pdf (last
accessed June 29, 2018).
534.
Personal Data Protection Commission (Singapore), Legislation and Guidelines Overview, available at: https://
www.pdpc.gov.sg/Legislation-and-Guidelines/Personal-Data-Protection-Act-Overview (last accessed June 29,
2018).
535.
Don Weinland, Tencent Closes in on Alipay Crown, Financial Times (Apr. 3, 2018).
536.
Mancy Sun et al., Goldman Sachs Equity Research, The Rise of China Fintech (Aug. 7, 2017); Wei Wang and
David Dollar, Brookings Institution, What’s Happening with China’s FinTech Industry (Feb. 2018), available at:
https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2018/02/08/whats-happening-with-chinas-fintech-industry/.
5 37.
Vodafone Group Plc., Press Release – Vodafone Marks 10 Years of the World’s Leading Mobile Money
Service, M-Pesa (Feb. 21, 2017), available at: http://www.vodafone.com/content/index/media/vodafone-group-
releases/2017/m-pesa-10.html#.
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the world are at risk of disruption from technology-driven business models.
538
In particular, tech-
nology rms are expected to take advantage of new open-banking paradigms, such as Europe’s
PSD2 or India’s UPI, for instance, by using messaging platforms to access the country’s real-time
payment system.
New Technologies
In this changing international landscape, the intersection of technological advancement, data pri-
vacy, and industrial policy has put pressure on globally active rms. As they confront technological
innovation, some foreign governments have attempted to restrict access to U.S. rms by, for example,
requiring data to be stored and processed locally, putting caps on foreign ownership, forcing joint
ventures, and enforcing discriminatory licensing requirements. ese restrictions have a range of
commercial consequences for those rms and may conict with regulatory objectives, both in the
United States and abroad.
Interest in crypto-assets from a range of nancial authorities has increased substantially over the
past year, as evidenced in the March 2018 G20 Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors
Communiqué. For the rst time, the G20 explicitly addressed crypto-assets, and assigned the
Financial Stability Board (FSB) “in consultation with other standard-setting bodies, including
the Committee on Payments and Market Infrastructures and the International Organization of
Securities Commissions, and Financial Action Task Force (FATF) to report in July 2018 on their
work on crypto-assets.” e resulting report sets out the metrics that the FSB will use to monitor
crypto-asset markets as part of its ongoing assessment of vulnerabilities in the nancial system.
539
e G20 authorities are cognizant of the inherent risks these new assets currently pose for investor
protection and anti-money laundering and illicit nance regimes.
538. Miklós Dietz et al., McKinsey & Company, Remaking the Bank for an Ecosystem World (Oct. 2017), available
at: https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/financial-services/our-insights/remaking-the-bank-for-an-ecosystem-
world (estimating that 65% of bank profits are under threat from nonbank players, like large technology platform
companies); Aaron Fine and Rick Chavez, Oliver Wyman, The Customer Value Gap: Re-Calculating the Route
(2018), available at: http://www.oliverwyman.com/content/dam/oliver-wyman/v2/publications/2018/January/
state-of-the-financial-industry-2018-web.pdf.
539.
Financial Stability Board, Crypto-Assets: Report to the G20 on Work by the FSB and Standard-Setting
Bodies (July 16, 2018), available at: http://www.fsb.org/wp-content/uploads/P160718-1.pdf.
March 2018 G20 Communiqué
We acknowledge that technological innovation, including that underlying crypto-assets, has the potential to improve
the efficiency and inclusiveness of the financial system and the economy more broadly. Crypto-assets do, however,
raise issues with respect to consumer and investor protection, market integrity, tax evasion, money laundering and
terrorist financing. Crypto-assets lack the key attributes of sovereign currencies. At some point they could have
financial stability implications. We commit to implement the FATF standards as they apply to crypto-assets, look
forward to the FATF review of those standards, and call on the FATF to advance global implementation. We call on
international standard-setting bodies to continue their monitoring of crypto-assets and their risks, according to their
mandates, and assess multilateral responses as needed.
Source: Communique of the G20 Finance Minsters & Central Bank Governors, Buenos Aires, Argentina (March 19-20, 2018).
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Related to these issues, but separate from the focus on crypto-assets, is continuing international inter-
est in the underlying technology. e nancial services industry is already developing applications
for distributed ledger technology (DLT), including in commodities trading and securities settle-
ment, property registries, and secure, trusted identity products and services, among other use-cases.
Some central banks have contemplated the potential for central bank-backed digital currencies, or a
tokenized form of a at currency that utilizes DLT, asserting that they could potentially help reduce
fees, processing times, and operational risk for market participants. Whether such potential benets
could materialize is still highly uncertain. Some central bankers are also considering how to use DLT
to conduct interbank payments or employ DLT as a basis for other nancial infrastructure, including
through Project Ubin at the Monetary Authority of Singapore and Project Jasper at the Bank of
Canada. Private consortiums are also experimenting with permissioned distributed ledgers, which
operate by allowing only a known set of participants to validate transactions.
International Engagement
e United States engages with international counterparts on a bilateral and multilateral basis
to advance U.S. interests abroad. Given the cross-border implications of nancial technology,
international bodies have established various groups focused on nancial innovation. Financial
authorities from the United States participate in international forums such as G20, the FSB, and
International Monetary Fund to identify and manage global challenges, mitigate nancial stabil-
ity risks, and strengthen the external environment for U.S. growth. Additionally, U.S. authori-
ties monitor developments and gather information to inform U.S. regulatory and supervisory
approaches and priorities.
e United States strives to advance a coordinated policy approach at relevant international
forums and standard-setting bodies. As nancial technologies evolve, the emerging regulatory
issues stemming from nancial innovation often mean that U.S. authorities are in the process of
developing a domestic regulatory approach at the same time that international organizations and
standard-setting bodies are determining an international agenda. It is important that the United
States remain engaged in these international discussions to ensure that any outcomes are consistent
with domestic priorities.
International organizations have ramped up work on nancial innovation in response to mem-
bers’ demand. However, U.S. authorities should guard against international standards being
prematurely adopted before domestic policy is suciently advanced. International forums oer
important opportunities for U.S. regulatory authorities to share experiences and gather informa-
tion about the implications of nancial innovation for policy objectives such as nancial stability,
investor protection, and illicit nance regimes. Financial innovations can pose fresh questions
and challenges for regulatory authorities, and there is a tension between taking time to develop
competency and experience relevant to a new technology and adopting a regulatory framework
for that technology in a timely manner. For this reason, international regulatory approaches and
standards should be developed in coordination with market participants to ensure the regulatory
regime is appropriately calibrated.
Given the nature of innovations in nancial technology, cybersecurity is of critical importance, and
the United States remains committed to building cyber resilience in the nancial sector domestically
A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Nonbank Financials, Fintech, and Innovation
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and internationally. Internationally, the United States is engaging with foreign counterparts on
cybersecurity in the nancial sector through several key multilateral and bilateral partnerships. At
the G-7, Treasury co-chairs the Cybersecurity Expert Group (CEG) with the Bank of England. e
CEG discusses approaches to nancial sector cybersecurity, with the objective of fostering com-
mon understandings and collaboration on areas of interest. e G-7, through the CEG, continues
to work toward building cyber resilience internationally in the nancial services sector.
Figure 25 illustrates the various initiatives related to nancial innovation underway in a number
of prominent international bodies. Treasury continues to engage closely with other U.S. agen-
cies, including those representing the United States at the Committee on Payments and Market
Infrastructures, the International Organization of Securities Commissions, FATF, and other inter-
national bodies, to maintain a unied message — namely that we support responsible innovation
in the marketplace, while maintaining the integrity and accessibility of the nancial system. It is
important that we stay vigilant to the international discussions on nancial innovation, particu-
larly any which may result in the potential development of standards or best practices, to ensure
that any outcomes are balanced and consistent with the U.S. approach.
Recommendations
Treasury should continue to leverage international bodies to support our domestic agenda, with
domestic nancial and regulatory priorities guiding the positions we take in international forums.
Treasury will work to ensure actions taken by international organizations align with U.S. national
interests and the domestic priorities of U.S. regulatory authorities. Treasury believes in avoiding
regulatory fragmentation where possible, and promoting international approaches that facilitate
cross-border capital and investment ows. It would be premature, however, to develop international
regulatory standards for many applications of nancial technology currently under discussion. In
these cases, Treasury recommends continued participation by relevant experts in international forums
and standard-setting bodies to share experiences regarding respective regulatory approaches and to
benet from lessons learned. Market participants require regulatory clarity to operate, but that clarity
must start from domestic authorities determining the right approach within their own jurisdictions.
Treasury and U.S. nancial regulators should engage with the private sector with respect to ongo-
ing work programs at international bodies to ensure regulatory approaches are appropriately cali-
brated. Discussions on nancial innovation occurring in international organizations sometimes do
not include relevant experts. Additionally, central banks, ministries of nance, and capital markets
regulators must continue building relevant in-house expertise regarding nancial innovations such
as cloud services, APIs, and articial intelligence.
Finally, Treasury and U.S. nancial regulators should proactively engage with international orga-
nizations to ensure that they are adhering to their core mandates. Standard-setting bodies should
closely align their work and recommendations with the core competencies of each institution,
including when they are addressing issues related to applications of nancial technology.
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Figure 25: International Interagency Fintech Collaboration Efforts
Group Name
Participating agencies Mission / Goals Correlation to Fintech
The Bank for International Settlements, Committee on Payments and Markets Infrastructure and Committee on
the Global Financial System
Federal Reserve (committee chair)
and the Federal Reserve Bank of
New York represent the United
States. Other members include other
central banks.
Identify and assess potential sources
of stress in global financial markets,
further the understanding of the
structural underpinnings of financial
markets, and promote improvements
to the functioning and stability of
these markets.
Fintech Payments and Lending.
From 2014 to February 2017,
the Committee on Payments and
Markets Infrastructure has published
papers on a variety of fintech
payments topics including DLT in
payments, virtual currencies, faster
payments, and nonbanks in retail
payments papers.
Basel Committee on Banking Supervision’s Task Force on Financial Technology (TFFT)
OCC co-chairs, and FDIC and
Federal Reserve also represent the
United States. Other participants
include central banks and authorities
with formal responsibility for the
supervision of banking business.
TFFT assesses the risks and
supervisory challenges associated
with innovation and technological
changes affecting banking.
General Fintech. TFFT’s work is
currently focused on the effect
that fintech has on banks and
banks’ business models, and the
implications this has for supervision.
Financial Action Task Force (FATF) Fintech & Regtech Forums
Treasury (lead), Federal Reserve and
OCC represent the United States.
Other members include agencies
from other jurisdictions and two
regional organizations, and associate
members include other international
and regional organizations.
Conduct industry outreach and
provide a platform for a constructive
dialogue and support innovation in
financial services while addressing
the regulatory and supervisory
challenges posed by emerging
technologies.
General Fintech. In 2017, FATF
held three fintech-related events
on fintech, regtech, and AML/
countering the financing of terrorism
(CFT) covering topics including:
relevance of emerging fintech
trends to financial institutions; AML/
CFT standards in fintech; how
different jurisdictions approach the
regulation and supervision of fintech;
fintech’s effect on AML/CFT-related
information availability and exchange;
and risk management and mitigation
for fintech.
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185
Group Name
Participating agencies Mission / Goals Correlation to Fintech
Financial Stability Board Financial Innovation Network
Treasury, FRB, SEC, OCC, FDIC,
FRBNY, and the Office of Financial
Research represent the United
States. Other members include
central banks and authorities
with formal responsibility for the
supervision of banking business.
The Financial Stability Board
promotes international financial
stability by coordinating national
financial authorities and international
standard-setting bodies as they
work toward developing financial
sector policies. The Financial
Innovation Network is responsible
for understanding emerging trends
in financial services and the potential
effect on financial stability.
General Fintech. In 2017, published
white papers and a report on the
financial stability implications of
fintech credit (in collaboration
with the Committee on the Global
Financial System), the use of artificial
intelligence (AI) and machine
learning in financial services, and
fintech supervisory and regulatory
issues that merit authorities’
attention.
International Credit Union Regulators Network (ICURN)
NCUA represents the United States.
Other members include national and
other supervisors of credit unions
and financial cooperatives.
ICURN provides training to
supervisors of credit unions and
financial cooperatives on a variety
of topics.
General Fintech. ICURN’s July 2017
conference included a panel on
understanding fintech and regulation.
Discussion covered sectors
including payments, lending, digital
wealth management, and DLT.
International Organization of Securities Commissions (IOSCO), Committee on Emerging Risks
SEC and CFTC represent the United
States. Other members include
national and provincial securities
regulators.
IOSCO brings together the world’s
securities regulators and works
with the G20 and the Financial
Stability Board (FSB) on the global
regulatory reform agenda. The
Committee on Emerging Risks
provides a platform for securities
regulators and economists to
discuss emerging risks and market
developments and to develop and
assess tools to assist regulators in
reviewing the regulatory environment
and identifying, monitoring, and
managing systemic risk.
General Fintech. In February 2017,
the Committee on Emerging Risks
published a research report on
fintech, which included sections on
fintech lending, digital investment
advice, DLT, fintech in emerging
markets, and other regulatory
considerations. IOSCO also
established an Initial Coin Offering
Consultation Network, through
which members can discuss their
experiences and concerns regarding
token sales, and has issued
related statements to members and
the public.
Source: U.S. Government Accountability Office, Financial Technology: Additional Steps by Regulators Could Better Protect Con-
sumers and Aid Regulatory Oversight (March 2018).
Appendix A
Participants in the Executive Order
Engagement Process
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189
Participants in the Executive
Order Engagement Process
GOVERNMENT AND INTERNATIONAL
U.S. Federal and State
Appraisal Subcommittee of the
Federal Financial Institutions
Examination Council
Arizona Attorney General’s Office
Board of Governors of the Federal
Reserve System
Bureau of Consumer
Financial Protection
Bureau of the Fiscal Service — U.S.
Department of the Treasury
Conference of State Bank
Supervisors
Defense Innovation Unit
Experimental (DIUx)
Federal Communications
Commission
Federal Deposit Insurance
Corporation
Federal Housing Administration
Federal Housing Finance Agency
Federal Trade Commission
Financial Crimes
Enforcement Network
Financial Industry Regulatory
Authority
Government National Mortgage
Association (Ginnie Mae)
National Association of Consumer
Credit Administrators
National Credit Union
Administration
North American Securities
Administrators Association
Office of the Comptroller of the
Currency
U.S. Department of Homeland
Security
U.S. Department of Housing and
Urban Development
U.S. Commodity Futures Trading
Commission
U.S. Securities and Exchange
Commission
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Appendix A • Participants in the Executive Order Engagement Process
190
Non-United States
Bank of Canada
Dutch National Bank
European Commission
International Monetary Fund
Monetary Authority of Singapore
U.K. Financial Conduct Authority
EXPERTS AND ADVOCATES
Americans for Financial Reform
Autonomous NEXT
Bandman Advisors
CB Insights
Center for Financial Services
Innovation
Center for Responsible Lending
David Yermack, New York University
Stern School of Business
Davis Polk & Wardwell LLP
Delta Strategy Group
Marco Santori, Blockchain.com
Michael Kitces, CFP
Mercatus Center at George Mason
University
National Community Reinvestment
Coalition
National Consumer Law Center
Paul Hastings LLP
Thomas W. Miller Jr., Mississippi
State University College of
Business
U.S. Public Interest Research
Group
Urban Institute
Willkie Farr & Gallagher LLP
World Economic Forum
TRADE ASSOCIATIONS
American Bankers Association
American Financial Services
Association
American Institute of Certified
Public Accountants
American Land Title Association
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Appendix A • Participants in the Executive Order Engagement Process
191
American Transaction Processors
Coalition
CFA Institute
Community Financial Services
Association of America
Consumer Bankers Association
Consumer Financial Data Rights
Electronic Transactions Association
Financial Innovation Now
Financial Planning Association
Financial Services Centers of
America
Financial Services Information
Sharing and Analysis Center
Financial Services Roundtable
Futures Industry Association
Global Financial Markets
Association
Independent Community Bankers
of America
International Swaps and Derivatives
Association
Investment Adviser Association
Investment Company Institute
MarketPlace Lending Association
Money Service Business
Association
Mortgage Bankers Association
National Association of Auto
Dealers
National Association of Personal
Financial Advisors
National Association of Realtors
National Money Transmitters
Association
Network Branded Prepaid Card
Association
Online Lenders Alliance
Real Estate Valuation Advocacy
Association
Receivables Management
Association
Securities Industry and Financial
Markets Association
Small Business Finance
Association
Structured Finance Industry Group
The Appraisal Foundation
The Data Coalition
U.S. Chamber of Commerce
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Appendix A • Participants in the Executive Order Engagement Process
192
FIRMS
Ace Cash Express
Advance America
Affirm
Ally
Amazon
American Education Services/
PHEAA
American Express
American Honda Finance
Corporation
Andreesen Horowitz
Apple Pay
Avant
Bank of America
Bayview Loan Servicing
BBVA
Better Mortgage
Betterment
Black Knight, Inc.
BlackRock/FutureAdvisor
Blend
Blooom
Bloq
BNP Paribas
Capital One
Charles Schwab & Co.
Chase Mortgage Servicing
Citigroup
CLS Bank
Coinbase
CommonBond
Compass Point Research
and Trading
ConsenSys
CoreLogic
Credit Karma
Credit Suisse
Cross River Bank
Depository Trust and
Clearing Corporation
DRW Venture Capital
DV01
E*TRADE
Early Warning
Ellie Mae
Encore Capital
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193
Envestnet | Yodlee
Experian North America
Facebook
Fair Isaac Corporation (FICO)
Fannie Mae
Fay Servicing
Fidelity Investments
Financial Engines
First Data
FIS
Folio Investing
Freddie Mac
FT Partners
Funding Circle
Goldman Sachs
Google
Great Lakes
Intercontinental Exchange
Intercontinental Exchange/
MERSCORP
Intuit
Invesco
JPMorgan Chase
Kabbage
Keefe, Bruyette & Woods
Lightspeed Venture Partners
LeadsMarket
LedgerX
Legal & General Investment
Management America
Lend360
Lending Club
LoanCare
LoanDepot
Mastercard
Microsoft Azure
Mid America Mortgage
MOHELA
MoneyGram
Moneytree
Moody’s
Morgan Stanley
Morningstar
Mortgage Investors Group
Mr. Cooper
NASDAQ
Navient
Nelnet
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Appendix A • Participants in the Executive Order Engagement Process
194
NextCapital Group
NOIC/Concord
Ocwen Financial
One Main Financial
Orchard Platform
PayPal
PeerIQ
PennyMac Financial Services
Plaid
PNC Financial
Primary Residential Mortgage
Prosper
Quicken Loans
R3
Ripple
S&P Global
Select Portfolio Servicing
Sequoia Capital
Silicon Valley Bank
SoFi
Square
Stripe
T. Rowe Price
TD Ameritrade
The Clearing House Payments
Company
Toyota Financial Services
TransUnion
Tricadia Capital
TSYS
Two Sigma Investments
U.S. Bancorp
United Income
Upstart
Vanguard
Veritec Solutions
Veros
Viamericas
Visa
Wealthfront
WebBank
Wells Fargo Mortgage Servicing
Western Asset Management
Western Union
WorldPay (Vantiv)
ZestFinance
Appendix B
Table of Recommendations
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197
Table of Recommendations
Embracing Digitization, Data, and Technology
Recommendation
Policy Responsibility
Core
Principle
Congress Regulator
Digitization
Telephone Consumer Protection Act (TCPA) and Fair Debt Collection Practices Act (FDCPA)
Treasury recommends that the FCC continue its efforts to address
the issue of unwanted calls through the creation of a reassigned num-
bers database. Treasury recommends that the FCC create a safe har-
bor for calls to reassigned numbers that provides callers a sufficient
opportunity to learn the number has been reassigned.
FCC F, G
Treasury recommends that the FCC provide clear guidance on rea-
sonable methods for consumers to revoke consent under the TCPA.
Congress should consider statutory changes to the TCPA to mitigate
unwanted calls to consumers and provide for a revocation standard
similar to that provided under the FDCPA.
Congress FCC A, F
Treasury recommends that the Bureau promulgate regulations under
the FDCPA to codify that reasonable digital communications, espe-
cially when they reflect a consumer’s preferred method, are appropri-
ate for use in debt collection.
Bureau A, F
Consumer Financial Data
Consumer Access to Financial Account and Transaction Data
Treasury recommends that the Bureau affirm that for purposes of
Section 1033, third parties properly authorized by consumers, includ-
ing data aggregators and consumer fintech application providers, fall
within the definition of “consumer” under Section 1002(4) of Dodd-
Frank for the purpose of obtaining access to financial account and
transaction data.
Bureau A, F
Treasury recommends that regulators such as the SEC, Financial
Industry Regulatory Authority, DOL, and state insurance regulators
recognize the benefits of consumer access to financial account and
transaction data in electronic form and consider what measures, if
any, may be needed to facilitate such access for entities under their
jurisdiction. However, Treasury recommends against further legislative
action to expand the scope of Section 1033 at this time.
Congress
SEC,
FINRA,
DOL,
State
Insurance
Regulators
A
Treasury recommends that the Bureau work with the private sector
to develop best practices on disclosures and terms and conditions
regarding consumers’ use of products and services powered by con-
sumer financial account and transaction data provided by data aggre-
gators and financial services companies. If necessary, the Bureau
should consider issuing principles-based disclosure rules pursuant to
its authority under Section 1032 of Dodd-Frank.
Bureau A, F
A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Nonbank Financials, Fintech, and Innovation
Appendix B • Table of Recommendations
198
Recommendation
Policy Responsibility
Core
Principle
Congress Regulator
Treasury believes that consumers should have the ability to revoke
their prior authorization that permits data aggregators and fintech
applications to access their financial account and transaction data.
Data aggregators and fintech applications should provide adequate
means for consumers to readily revoke the prior authorization. If nec-
essary, banking regulators and the SEC should consider issuing
rules that require financial services companies to comply with a con-
sumer request to limit, suspend, or terminate access to the consum-
er’s financial account and transaction data by data aggregators and
fintech applications.
FRB,
FDIC,
OCC,
SEC
A, F
Treasury sees a need to remove legal and regulatory uncertainties cur-
rently holding back financial services companies and data aggrega-
tors from establishing data sharing agreements that effectively move
firms away from screen-scraping to more secure and efficient meth-
ods of data access. Treasury believes that the U.S. market would be
best served by a solution developed by the private sector, with appro-
priate involvement of federal and state financial regulators. A potential
solution should address data sharing, security, and liability. Any solu-
tion should explore efforts to mitigate implementation costs for com-
munity banks and smaller financial services companies with more lim-
ited resources to invest in technology.
FRB,
FDIC,
OCC,
SEC,
FINRA,
State
Regulators
A
Treasury recommends that any potential solution discussed in the prior
recommendation also address resolution of liability for data access. If
necessary, Congress and financial regulators should evaluate whether
federal standards are appropriate to address these issues.
Congress
FRB, FDIC,
OCC, SEC,
FINRA,
State
Regulators
A, F
Treasury recommends that any potential solution discussed in the prior
recommendation address the standardization of data elements as part
of improving consumers’ access to their data. Any solution should draw
upon existing efforts that have made progress on this issue to date. If
necessary, Congress and financial regulators should evaluate whether
federal standards are appropriate to address these issues.
Congress
FRB,
FDIC,
OCC,
SEC,
FINRA,
State
Regulators
A, F
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199
Recommendation
Policy Responsibility
Core
Principle
Congress Regulator
Treasury recommends that the banking regulators remove ambiguity
stemming from the third-party guidance that discourages banks from
moving to more secure methods of data access such as APIs.
FRB,
FDIC,
OCC,
Bureau
A, F
To the extent that any additional regulation of data aggregation is nec-
essary, Treasury recommends that it occur at the federal level by reg-
ulators that have significant experience in data security and privacy,
and that will have, through legislation if necessary, broad jurisdiction
to ensure equivalent treatment in the nonfinancial sector.
Congress F, G
Data Security and Breach Notification
Treasury recommends that Congress enact a federal data security
and breach notification law to protect consumer financial data and
notify consumers of a breach in a timely manner. Such a law should
be based on the following principles: protect consumer financial data;
ensure technology-neutral and scalable standards based on the size
of an entity and type of activity in which the entity engages; recognize
existing federal data security requirements for financial institutions;
and employ uniform national standards that preempt state laws.
Congress F, G
Digital Legal Identity
Treasury recommends that financial regulators work with Treasury to
enhance public-private partnerships to identify ways government can
eliminate unintended or unnecessary regulatory and other barriers and
facilitate the adoption of trustworthy digital legal identity products and
services in the financial services sector. Treasury also recognizes that
the development of digital legal identity products and services in the
financial services sector should be implemented in a manner that is
compatible with solutions developed across other sectors of the U.S.
economy and government.
Treasury,
FinCEN,
FRB,
FDIC,
OCC,
SEC,
State
Regulators
F
Treasury supports the efforts of OMB to fully implement the long-
delayed U.S. government federated digital identity system. Treasury
recommends policies that would restore a public-private partnership
model to create an interoperable digital identity infrastructure and
identity solutions that comply with NIST guidelines and would reinvig-
orate the role of U.S. government-certified private sector identity pro-
viders, promoting consumer choice and supporting a competitive digi-
tal identity marketplace.
OMB,
GSA,
Commerce
F
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200
Recommendation
Policy Responsibility
Core
Principle
Congress Regulator
The Potential of Scale
Cloud Technologies and Financial Services
Treasury recommends that federal financial regulators modernize their
requirements and guidance (e.g., vendor oversight) to better provide
for appropriate adoption of new technologies such as cloud comput-
ing, with the aim of reducing unnecessary barriers to the prudent and
informed migration of activities to the cloud. Specific actions U.S. reg-
ulators should take include: formally recognizing independent U.S.
audit and security standards that sufficiently meet regulatory expecta-
tions; addressing outdated record keeping rules like SEC Rule 17a-
4; clarifying how audit requirements may be met; setting clear and
appropriately tailored chain outsourcing expectations; and providing
staff examiners appropriate training to implement agency policy on
cloud services.
FRB,
FDIC,
OCC,
SEC,
CFTC,
SROs
D, F
Treasury recommends that a cloud and financial services working
group be established among financial regulators so that cloud poli-
cies can benefit from deep and sustained understanding by regula-
tory authorities. Financial regulators should support potential policies
by engaging key industry stakeholders, including providers, users, and
others impacted by cloud services. U.S. financial regulators should
seek to promote the use of cloud technology within the existing U.S.
regulatory framework to help financial services companies reduce the
risks of noncompliance as well as the costs associated with meeting
multiple and sometimes conflicting regulations. Regulators should be
wary of imposing data localization requirements and should instead
seek other supervisory or appropriate technological solutions to
potential data security, privacy, availability, and access issues.
Treasury,
FRB,
FDIC,
OCC,
SEC,
CFTC,
SROs
D, F
Big Data, Machine Learning, and Artificial Intelligence in Financial Services
Regulators should not impose unnecessary burdens or obstacles to
the use of AI and machine learning and should provide greater regu-
latory clarity that would enable further testing and responsible deploy-
ment of these technologies by regulated financial services companies
as the technologies develop.
Federal
and State
Financial
Regulators
D, F
Treasury recommends that financial regulators engage with the
Select Committee on Artificial Intelligence, in addition to pursuing
other strategic interagency AI efforts. Engagement in such efforts
should emphasize use-cases and applications in the financial ser-
vices industry, including removing regulatory barriers to deployment of
AI-powered technologies.
Federal
Financial
Regulators
D, F
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201
Aligning the Regulatory Framework to Promote Innovation
Recommendation
Policy Responsibility
Core
Principle
Congress Regulator
Modernizing Regulatory Frameworks for National Activities
Improving the Clarity and Efficiency of Our Regulatory Frameworks
Treasury supports state regulators’ efforts to build a more unified licens-
ing regime and supervisory process across the states. Such efforts
might include adoption of a passporting regime for licensure. However,
critical to this effort are much more accelerated actions by state legisla-
tures and regulators to effectively reduce unnecessary inconsistencies
across state laws and regulations to achieve much greater levels of har-
monization. Treasury recommends that if states are unable to achieve
meaningful harmonization across their licensing and supervisory regimes
within three years, Congress should act to encourage greater unifor-
mity in rules governing lending and money transmission to be adopted,
supervised, and enforced by state regulators.
Congress
State
Regulators
A, D, F
Treasury recommends that the OCC move forward with prudent and
carefully considered applications for special purpose national bank char-
ters. OCC special purpose national banks should not be permitted to
accept FDIC-insured deposits, to reduce risks to taxpayers. The OCC
should consider whether it is appropriate to apply financial inclusion
requirements to special purpose national banks. The Federal Reserve
should assess whether OCC special purpose national banks should
receive access to federal payment services.
FRB,
OCC
A, B, D, F
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202
Recommendation
Policy Responsibility
Core
Principle
Congress Regulator
Federal banking regulators should, in coordination, review current third-
party guidance through a notice and comment process. U.S. bank-
ing regulators should further harmonize their guidance with a greater
emphasis on (1) improving the current tailoring and scope of application
of guidance upon third-party vendors to improve the efficiency of over-
sight and (2) enabling innovations in a safe and prudent manner. Such a
review should specifically consider how to:
• Further develop the framework to regulate bank partnerships with
fintech lenders to apply strong and tailored regulatory oversight
while also supporting efforts by banks, particularly smaller commu-
nity banks, to partner with fintechs.
• Provide greater clarity around the vendor oversight requirements for
cloud service providers, including clarifying how third-party guid-
ance should apply to a third-party’s sub-contractors, like cloud ser-
vice providers (i.e., fourth party vendors).
• Support more secure methods for consumers to access their finan-
cial data, such as through API agreements between banks and
data aggregators.
• Identify common tools banks can leverage as part of due diligence
efforts, such as robust independent audits, recognized certifica-
tions, and collaboration among institutions in an effort to enhance
efficiencies and reduce costs.
• Maintain ongoing efforts with other federal and state regulators to
identify opportunities for harmonization as appropriate.
Looking ahead and recognizing the dynamic nature of financial technol-
ogy developments, the banking regulators should be prepared to flexi-
bly adapt their third-party risk relationships framework to emerging tech-
nology developments in financial services. Moreover, banking regulators
should consider how to make examiners’ application of interagency
guidance on third-party relationships more consistent across and within
the agencies.
FRB,
FDIC,
OCC
A, D, F, G
Treasury recommends that the Federal Reserve consider how to reas-
sess the definition of BHC control to provide firms a simpler and more
transparent standard to facilitate innovation-related investments. This
recommendation is consistent with public comments by Federal Reserve
officials who have called for reassessing this issue. In addition, the bank-
ing regulators should interpret banking organizations’ permitted scope
of activities in a harmonized manner as permitted by law wherever possi-
ble and in a manner that recognizes the positive impact that changes in
technology and data can have in the delivery of financial services.
FRB,
FDIC,
OCC
A, D, F, G
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Appendix B • Table of Recommendations
203
Updating Activity-Specific Regulations
Recommendation
Policy Responsibility
Core
Principle
Congress Regulator
Lending and Servicing
Marketplace Lending
Treasury recommends that Congress codify the “valid when made” doc-
trine to preserve the functioning of U.S. credit markets and the long-
standing ability of banks and other financial institutions, including mar-
ketplace lenders, to buy and sell validly made loans without the risk of
coming into conflict with state interest rate limits. Additionally, the federal
banking regulators should use their available authorities to address chal-
lenges posed by Madden.
Congress
FRB,
FDIC,
OCC
A, F
Treasury recommends that Congress codify that the existence of a ser-
vice or economic relationship between a bank and a third party (includ-
ing financial technology companies) does not affect the role of the bank
as the true lender of loans it makes. Further, federal banking regulators
should also reaffirm (through additional clarification of applicable com-
pliance and risk-management requirements, for example) that the bank
remains the true lender under such partnership arrangements.
Congress
FRB,
FDIC,
OCC
A, F
Treasury recognizes the role of state laws and oversight in protecting
consumers, but such state regulation should not occur in a manner that
hinders bank partnership models already operating in a safe and sound
manner with appropriate consumer protections. Treasury recommends
that states revise credit services laws to exclude businesses that solicit,
market, or originate loans on behalf of a federal depository institution pur-
suant to a partnership agreement.
States A, F
Mortgage Lending and Servicing
Treasury recommends that Ginnie Mae pursue acceptance of eNotes
and supports the measures outlined in its Ginnie Mae 2020 roadmap to
more broadly develop its digital capabilities.
HUD /
Ginnie
Mae
A, F
Treasury recommends Congress appropriate for FHA the funding it has
requested for technology upgrades in the President’s Fiscal Year 2019
Budget — a portion of which FHA would use to improve the digitization
of loan files. In addition, FHA, VA, and USDA should explore the develop-
ment of shared technology platforms, including for certain origination and
servicing activities.
Congress
HUD /
FHA,
VA /
USDA
A, F
Treasury recommends the FHLBs explore ways to address their con-
cerns regarding eNotes with the goal of accepting eNotes on collateral
pledged to secure advances.
FHLBs A, F
Treasury recommends that Congress revisit Title XI FIRREA appraisal
requirements to update them for developments that have occurred in the
market during the past thirty years. An updated appraisal statute should
account for the development of automated and hybrid appraisal prac-
tices and sanction their use where the characteristics of the transaction
and market conditions indicate it is prudent to do so.
Congress A, F
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Appendix B • Table of Recommendations
204
Recommendation
Policy Responsibility
Core
Principle
Congress Regulator
Treasury recommends FHA and other government loan programs
develop enhanced automated appraisal capabilities to improve origina-
tion quality and mitigate the credit risk of overvaluation. These programs
may also wish to consider providing targeted appraisal waivers where
a high degree of property standardization and information about credit
risk exists to support automated valuation, and where the overall risks of
the mortgage transaction make such a waiver appropriate. Treasury sup-
ports legislative action where statutory changes are required to authorize
granting limited appraisal waivers for government programs.
Congress
HUD /
FHA, VA,
USDA
A, F
Treasury further recommends that government loan programs explore
opportunities to leverage industry-leading technology capabilities to
reduce costs to taxpayers and accelerate adoption of new technology in
the government-insured sector.
HUD /
FHA, VA,
USDA
A, F
Treasury recommends that states yet to authorize electronic and remote
online notarization pursue legislation to explicitly permit the application of
this technology and the interstate recognition of remotely notarized docu-
ments. Treasury recommends states align laws and regulations to further
standardize notarization practices.
States A, F
Treasury recommends Congress consider legislation to provide a mini-
mum uniform standard for electronic and remote online notarizations.
Congress A, F
Treasury recommends that recording jurisdictions yet to recognize and
accept electronic records implement the necessary technology updates
to process and record these documents and to pursue digitization of
existing property records.
States A, F
To address the perception associated with the use of the FCA on mort-
gage loans insured by the federal government, Treasury recommends that
HUD establish more transparent standards in determining which program
requirements and violations it considers to be material to assist DOJ in
determining which knowing defects to pursue. In doing so, Treasury rec-
ommends that:
• FHA clarify the remedies and liabilities lenders and servicers face,
which could include, where appropriate, remedies such as indemnifi-
cation and/or premium adjustments. Remedies should be correlated
to the Defect Taxonomy.
• FHA should continue to review and refine its lender and loan certifi-
cations and its loan review system, including the Defect Taxonomy.
Lenders that make errors deemed immaterial to loan approval should
receive safe harbor from a denial of claim and forfeiture of premi-
ums. Lenders should receive a similar safe harbor for material viola-
tions that are cured based on remedies prescribed by FHA absent
patterns which indicate a systemic issue.
• HUD, in determining the appropriate remedies for violations of its
program requirements, should consider the systemic nature of the
problem, involvement or knowledge of the lender’s senior manage-
ment, overall quality of the originations of a specific lender, and
whether or to what extent the loan defect may have impacted the
incidence or severity of the loan default.
HUD /
FHA
F
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205
Recommendation
Policy Responsibility
Core
Principle
Congress Regulator
Treasury recommends that DOJ ensure that materiality for purposes of
the FCA is linked to the standards in place at the agency administer-
ing the program to which the claim has been filed, and that DOJ and
HUD work together to clarify the process by which mutual agreement
is reached on the resolution of claims. Where a relator pursues qui tam
action against a lender for a nonmaterial error or omission, DOJ, in con-
sultation with HUD and FHA, should exercise its statutory authority to
seek dismissal.
DOJ,
HUD
F
Treasury recommends Congress consider appropriate remedial legis-
lation if the recommended administrative actions are unsuccessful at
achieving the desired result of increasing lender and servicer participa-
tion in federal mortgage programs.
Congress F
Treasury recommends that federally supported mortgage programs
explore standardizing the most effective features of a successful loss mit-
igation program across the federal footprint. Such standardization should
broadly align a loss mitigation approach that facilitates effective and effi-
cient loan modifications when in the financial interest of the borrower and
investor, promotes transparency, reduces costs, and mitigates the impact
of defaults on housing valuations during downturns.
FHFA /
GSEs,
HUD /
FHA, VA,
USDA
F
Treasury recommends HUD continue to review FHA servicing practices
with the intention to increase certainty and reduce needlessly costly and
burdensome regulatory requirements, while fulfilling FHA’s statutory obliga-
tion to the Mutual Mortgage Insurance Fund (MMIF). In particular, Treasury
recommends that FHA consider administrative changes to how penal-
ties are assessed across FHA’s multi-part foreclosure timeline to allow for
greater flexibility for servicers to miss intermediate deadlines while adher-
ing to the broader resolution timeline, as well as to better align with federal
loss mitigation requirements now in place through the Bureau.
HUD /
FHA
A, F
Treasury recommends FHA explore changes to its property conveyance
framework to reduce costs and increase efficiencies by addressing the
frequent and costly delays associated with the current process. As an
additional measure, Treasury recommends that FHA continue to make
appropriate use of, and consider expanding, programs which reduce the
need for foreclosed properties to be conveyed to HUD, such as Note
Sales and FHA’s Claim Without Conveyance of Title.
HUD /
FHA
A, F
Treasury recommends that states pursue the establishment of a
model foreclosure law, or make any modifications they deem appropri-
ate to an existing law, and amend their foreclosure statutes based on
that model law.
States A, F
Treasury recommends federally supported housing programs, includ-
ing those administered by FHA, USDA, and VA, and the GSEs, explore
imposing guaranty fee and insurance fee surcharges to account for
added costs in states where foreclosure timelines significantly exceed
the national average.
FHFA /
GSEs,
HUD /
FHA, VA,
USDA
A, F
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Appendix B • Table of Recommendations
206
Recommendation
Policy Responsibility
Core
Principle
Congress Regulator
Treasury recommends that Ginnie Mae collaborate with FHFA, the
GSEs, and the Conference of State Bank Supervisors to expand and
align standard, detailed reporting requirements on nonbank counterparty
financial health, including terms and covenants associated with funding
structures, to provide confidence that taxpayers are protected during a
period of severe market stress.
HUD /
Ginnie
Mae,
FHFA /
GSEs,
CSBS
B
Treasury supports Ginnie Mae’s consideration of enhancing its counter-
party risk mitigation approach, including through the imposition of stress
testing requirements that can provide information on the financial health
of servicer counterparties across an economic cycle.
HUD /
Ginnie
Mae
B
Treasury recommends Ginnie Mae have sufficient flexibility to charge
guaranty fees appropriate to cover additional risk arising from changes in
the overall market or at the program level.
Congress B
Treasury recommends a comprehensive assessment of Ginnie Mae’s
current staffing and contracting policies, including the costs and bene-
fits of alternative pay and/or contracting structures. Ginnie Mae would be
better equipped to manage its program and monitor counterparty risk if
it were able to more readily attract personnel with requisite expertise by
paying salaries comparable to those at other financial agencies with pre-
mium pay authority. Additionally, being able to adopt similar contracting
procedures as other agencies that are outside of federal acquisition stat-
utes and regulations would enable Ginnie Mae to more effectively mon-
itor and respond to changing market conditions and needs. However,
any change to Ginnie Mae’s personnel or contracting policies should
be informed by a comprehensive assessment of current challenges. The
potential benefits of alternative pay and/or contracting structures should
be weighed against the additional federal costs that would be incurred.
Congress
HUD /
Ginnie
Mae
B
Student Lenders and Servicers
Education should establish guidance on minimum standards specify-
ing how servicers should handle decisions with significant financial impli-
cations (e.g., payment application across loans, prioritizing repayment
plans, and use of deferment and forbearance options), minimum contact
requirements, standard monthly statements, and timeframes for com-
pleting certain activities (e.g., processing forms or correcting specific
account issues). Treasury applauds the required use of Education brand-
ing on servicing materials in the new Direct Loan servicing procurement
to reduce borrower confusion.
ED F
In Education’s new Direct Loan Servicing contract, Education should
require student loan servicers to make greater use of emails and provide
guidance to servicers on how to use email appropriately to balance pri-
vacy and security concerns with the need for effective and timely com-
munication. All emails sent to federal student loan borrowers should pro-
vide enough information for borrowers to easily discern whether action
must be taken on their account.
ED A, F
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Appendix B • Table of Recommendations
207
Recommendation
Policy Responsibility
Core
Principle
Congress Regulator
Education should contract with providers of secure e-signature soft-
ware and cloud technology for use by federal student loan servicers on
all forms.
ED F
Education’s Office of Federal Student Aid should include in its manage-
ment team individuals with significant expertise in managing large con-
sumer loan portfolios.
ED B, F
Education should take steps to address existing data quality issues to
better monitor and manage portfolio performance. Education should
increase transparency by publishing greater portfolio performance data,
servicer performance data, and cost estimation analysis on its website
to give stakeholders greater insight into Education’s management of the
taxpayer investment in higher education.
ED B, F
Treasury supports legislative efforts to implement a risk-sharing program
for institutions participating in the federal student loan program based on
the amount of principal repaid following five years of payments. Schools
whose students have systematically low loan repayment rates should
be required to repay small amounts of federal dollars in order to pro-
tect taxpayers’ growing investment in the federal student loan program.
Congress should consider how to address schools with systematically
low repayment rates but large populations of disadvantaged students.
Congress ED F
Short-Term, Small-Dollar Installment Lending
Treasury recognizes and supports the broad authority of states that have
established comprehensive product restrictions and licensing require-
ments on nonbank short-term, small-dollar installment lenders and their
products. As a result, Treasury believes additional federal regulation is
unnecessary and recommends the Bureau rescind its Payday Rule.
Bureau F, G
Treasury recommends the federal and state financial regulators take
steps to encourage sustainable and responsible short-term, small-dol-
lar installment lending by banks. Specifically, Treasury recommends that
the FDIC reconsider its guidance on direct deposit advance services
and issue new guidance similar to the OCC’s core lending principles for
short-term, small-dollar installment lending.
FRB,
FDIC,
OCC,
Bureau,
State
Financial
Regulators
A, D, F
Debt Collection
Treasury recommends the Bureau establish minimum effective federal
standards governing the collection of debt by third-party debt collec-
tors. Specifically, these standards should address the information that is
transferred with a debt for purposes of debt collection or in a sale of the
debt. Further, the Bureau should determine whether the existing FDCPA
standards for validation letters to consumers should be expanded to
help the consumer assess whether the debt is owed and determine an
appropriate response to collection attempts. Treasury does not support
broad expansion of the FDCPA to first-party debt collectors absent further
Congressional consideration of such action.
Bureau F, G
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208
Recommendation
Policy Responsibility
Core
Principle
Congress Regulator
IRS Income Verification
It is important that IRS update its income verification system to lever-
age a modern, technology-driven interface that protects taxpayer infor-
mation and enables automated and secure data sharing with lenders or
designated third parties. Treasury recommends Congress fund IRS mod-
ernization, which would include upgrades that will support more efficient
income verification.
Congress Treasury D, F, G
New Credit Models and Data
Treasury recognizes that these new credit models and data sources have
the potential to meaningfully expand access to credit and the quality of
financial services. Treasury, therefore, recommends that federal and state
financial regulators further enable the testing of these newer credit mod-
els and data sources by both banks and nonbank financial companies.
Federal
and State
Financial
Regulators
A, D
Regulators, through interagency coordination wherever possible, should
tailor regulation and guidance to enable the increased use of these mod-
els and data sources by reducing uncertainties. In particular, regulators
should provide regulatory clarity for the use of new data and modeling
approaches that are generally recognized as providing predictive value
consistent with applicable law for use in credit decisions.
Federal
and State
Financial
Regulators
D, F, G
Regulators should in general be willing to recognize and value innovation
in credit modelling approaches. Regulators should enable prudent exper-
imentation with the aim of working through various issues raised, which
may in turn require new approaches to supervision and oversight.
Federal
and State
Financial
Regulators
D, F, G
Credit Bureaus
The FTC should retain its rulemaking and enforcement authority for non-
bank financial companies under the GLBA. Additionally, Treasury recom-
mends that the relevant agencies use appropriate authorities to coordi-
nate regulatory actions to protect consumer data held by credit reporting
agencies and that Congress continue to assess whether further authority
is needed in this area.
Congress
FTC,
Bureau
F, G
Treasury recommends that Congress amend CROA to exclude the
national credit bureaus and national credit scorers (i.e., credit scoring
companies utilized by financial institutions when making credit decisions)
from the definition of “credit repair organization” in CROA.
Congress F, G
InsurTech
Lawmakers, policymakers, and regulators should take coordinated steps
to encourage the development of innovative insurance products and
practices in the United States. Domestically, this includes consideration
of improving product speed to market, creating increased regulatory flexi-
bility, and harmonizing inconsistent laws and regulations.
Congress
Federal
and State
Financial
Regulators
F, G
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209
Recommendation
Policy Responsibility
Core
Principle
Congress Regulator
Treasury’s Federal Insurance Office, which provides insurance expertise
in the federal government, should work closely with state insurance regu-
lators, the NAIC, and federal agencies on InsurTech issues.
Treasury,
Insurance
Regulators,
NAIC
F, G
Payments
Money Transmitters
Treasury supports the Bureau’s ongoing efforts to reassess Regulation E.
Treasury recommends that the Bureau provide more flexibility regarding
the issuance of Regulation E disclosures and raise the current 100 trans-
fer per annum threshold for applicability of the de minimis exemption.
Bureau A, C, F, G
Faster Payments
Treasury recommends that the Federal Reserve set public goals and
corresponding deadlines consistent with the overall conclusions of the
Faster Payments Task Force’s final report.
FRB C, D, F
Treasury recommends that the Federal Reserve move quickly to facili-
tate a faster retail payments system, such as through the development
of a real-time settlement service, that would also allow for more efficient
and ubiquitous access to innovative payment capabilities. In particu-
lar, smaller financial institutions, like community banks and credit unions,
should also have the ability to access the most-innovative technologies
and payment services.
FRB C, D
Secure Payments
Treasury recommends that continued work in the area of payment secu-
rity include an actionable plan for future work, and ensure that solutions,
especially in security, do not include specific tech mandates.
FRB,
Treasury,
Federal
Financial
Regulators
D, F
Wealth Management and Digital Financial Planning
Treasury believes that appropriate protection for clients of financial plan-
ners, digital and otherwise, can be achieved without imposing either
a fragmented regulatory structure or creating new regulatory entities.
Treasury recommends that an appropriate existing regulator of a financial
planner, whether federal or state, be tasked as the primary regulator with
oversight of that financial planner and other regulators should exercise
regulatory and enforcement deference to the primary regulator. To the
extent that the financial planner is providing investment advice, the rele-
vant regulator will likely be the SEC or a state securities regulator.
SEC,
FINRA,
DOL,
Bureau,
FRB,
OCC,
FDIC,
State
Regulators
A, F, G
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210
Enabling the Policy Environment
Recommendation
Policy Responsibility
Core
Principle
Congress Regulator
Agile and Effective Regulation for a 21st Century Economy
Regulatory Sandboxes
Treasury recommends that federal and state financial regulators establish
a unified solution that coordinates and expedites regulatory relief under
applicable laws and regulations to permit meaningful experimentation for
innovative products, services, and processes. Such efforts would form,
in essence, a “regulatory sandbox” that can enhance and promote inno-
vation. If financial regulators are unable to fulfill those objectives, how-
ever, Treasury recommends that Congress consider legislation to provide
for a single process consistent with the principles detailed in the report,
including preemption of state laws if necessary.
Congress
Federal
and State
Financial
Regulators,
SROs
D, F, G
Agile Regulation
Treasury recommends that Congress enact legislation authorizing finan-
cial regulators to use other transaction authority for research and devel-
opment and proof-of-concept technology projects. Regulators should
use this authority to engage with the private sector to better understand
new technologies and innovations and their implications for market par-
ticipants, and to carry out their regulatory responsibilities more effectively
and efficiently.
Congress
Federal
Financial
Regulators
D, F
Treasury encourages regulators to appropriately tailor regulations to
ensure innovative technology companies providing tools to regulated
financial services companies can continue to drive technological efficien-
cies and cost reductions. Treasury encourages regulators to seek out
and explore innovative partnerships with financial services companies
and regtech firms alike to better understand new technologies that have
the potential to improve the execution of their own regulatory responsibil-
ities more effectively and efficiently.
Federal
and State
Financial
Regulators
D, F
Treasury recommends that financial regulators pursue robust engage-
ment efforts with industry and establish clear points of contact for indus-
try and consumer outreach. Treasury recommends that financial regu-
lators increase their efforts to bridge the gap between regulators and
start-ups, including efforts to engage in different parts of the country
rather than requiring entities to come to Washington, D.C.
Federal
and State
Financial
Regulators,
SROs
D, F, G
Treasury recommends that financial regulators periodically review exist-
ing regulations as innovations occur and new technology is developed
and determine whether such regulations fulfill their original purpose in
the least costly manner.
Federal
and State
Financial
Regulators,
SROs
D, F, G
A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Nonbank Financials, Fintech, and Innovation
Appendix B • Table of Recommendations
211
Recommendation
Policy Responsibility
Core
Principle
Congress Regulator
Treasury recommends that financial regulators engage at both the
domestic and international levels, as financial technology in many cases
is borderless. Treasury encourages international initiatives by financial
regulators to increase their knowledge of fintech developments in other
nations.
Federal
Financial
Regulators
D, E, F
Critical Infrastructure
Treasury recommends that financial regulators thoroughly consider
cybersecurity and other operational risks as new technologies are imple-
mented, firms become increasingly interconnected, and consumer data
are shared among a growing number of firms, including third parties.
Federal
and State
Financial
Regulators,
SROs
B, C, D, F
Treasury recommends that the FBIIC consider establishing a technology
working group charged with better understanding the technologies that
firms are increasingly relying upon, and staying well-informed regarding
innovation taking place within the sector.
FBIIC F, G
Treasury commits to leading a multiyear program with the financial ser-
vices industry to identify, properly protect, and remediate vulnerabilities.
Treasury F, G
International Approaches and Consideration
International Engagement
Treasury recommends continued participation by relevant experts in
international forums and standard-setting bodies to share experiences
regarding respective regulatory approaches and to benefit from lessons
learned. Treasury will work to ensure actions taken by international orga-
nizations align with U.S. national interests and the domestic priorities of
U.S. regulatory authorities.
Federal
Financial
Regulators,
Treasury
D, E
Treasury and U.S. financial regulators should engage with the private
sector with respect to ongoing work programs at international bodies to
ensure regulatory approaches are appropriately calibrated.
Federal
Financial
Regulators,
Treasury
D, E
Treasury and U.S. financial regulators should proactively engage with
international organizations to ensure that they are adhering to their core
mandates.
Federal
Financial
Regulators,
Treasury
D, E
Appendix C
Additional Background
A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Nonbank Financials, Fintech, and Innovation
215
Additional Background
Payments
Credit Card Networks
ere are four predominant credit card networks in the United States that function through two
dierent business models. ese networks and business models were started, built, and remain
as private-sector solutions that continue to be largely governed by private agreements instead of
government mandates. e rst model, a decentralized “open-loop” model of networks (e.g., Visa
and Mastercard), began as associations that were jointly owned by banking institutions, but today
are public companies. In this model, banks control the relationships with customers by issuing
credit cards to consumers and signing up merchants for acquirer relationships. In this sense, the
network is essentially a clearinghouse that facilitates acceptance and transaction routing for a fee;
the banks generally set terms with their individual and business customers through contract.
Open-loop networks maintain their own rulebooks and limit their membership to licensed and
regulated nancial institutions. For example, in the United States, a member is required to be
a depository institution or a chartered limited purpose national bank; in Europe, a member is
required to be either a depository institution or a Payment Service Provider licensed under the
Payment Services Directive.
540
e dierence in licensing and chartering of various types of nan-
cial rms between the United States and other jurisdictions is a factor in the breadth of direct
access to payment networks. Other jurisdictions such as the United Kingdom and India allow for a
specialty kind of payment rm to be licensed and regulated by the Financial Conduct Authority
541
or Reserve Bank of India,
542
respectively. Such a licensing regime creates a regulatory framework for
nondepository institutions that sets eligibility requirements for potential card network access.
543
However, these are baseline institutional eligibility criteria, and membership is not guaranteed just
because such criteria are met — the card networks also have additional requirements and standards
that must be met, such as having an eective AML regime.
e second model is a more centralized “closed-loop” structure (e.g., American Express and
Discover). ese rms, which also maintain their own rulebooks, are bank holding companies that
run the payment network and control customer relationships by issuing cards and contracting with
540. See Visa, Visa Europe Membership (2015), at 4, available at: https://www.visaeurope.com/media/
images/44959_visa_membership_access_a4_pdf-73-25878.pdf.
541.
See Financial Conduct Authority, Authorisation and Registration: E-money and Payment
Institutions (last updated Mar. 23, 2018), available at: https://www.fca.org.uk/firms/
authorisation-registration-emoney-payment-institutions.
542.
Reserve Bank of India, Press Release—RBI Releases Guidelines for Licensing of Payments Banks (Nov. 27,
2014), available at: https://rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_PressReleaseDisplay.aspx?prid=32615.
543.
U.S. law allows the OCC to charter a special purpose credit card national bank, including a version that is exempt
from requirements of the Bank Holding Company Act. This charter is only for banks whose predominant business
is credit cards. See Office of the Comptroller of the Currency, Comptroller’s Licensing Manual: Charters (Sept.
2016), at 51–54, available at: https://www.occ.treas.gov/publications/publications-by-type/licensing-manuals/
charters.pdf. This charter is not common. As of March 31, 2018, only nine such bank charters were active. Office
of the Comptroller of the Currency, Credit Card Banks Active As of 3/31/2018, available at: https://www.occ.
treas.gov/topics/licensing/national-banks-fed-savings-assoc-lists/credit-card-by-name-pdf.pdf.
A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Nonbank Financials, Fintech, and Innovation
Appendix C • Additional Background
216
merchants themselves.
544
e open-loop networks authorize and clear the majority of credit card
transactions. e open-loop, four-party credit card network model is illustrated below.
American Express and Discover, as bank holding companies, are subject to supervision and over-
sight by the Federal Reserve (and the banking regulator with jurisdiction over their banking sub-
sidiaries) and the full suite of banking regulations. Visa and Mastercard are subject to regulation
through the Bank Service Company Act as third-party service providers to banking organizations.
544. American Express and Discover now license their brands for issuance by other banking institutions in certain
cases.
Payment
network
(like Mastercard
and Visa)
Acquiring
bank
Issuing
bank
Figure C1: Credit Card Networks
Consumers Merchant
7 8
1
3
4
4
5
6
2
3
23
6
5
The consumer pays a merchant with a credit card
The merchant then electronically transmits the data through the applicable Association’s electronic network
to the issuing bank for authorization
If approved, the merchant receives authorization to capture the transaction, and the cardholder accepts
liability, usually by signing the sales slip
The merchant receives payment, net of fees, by submitting the captured credit card transactions to its bank
(the acquiring bank) in batches or at the end of the day
The acquiring bank forwards the sales draft data to the applicable Association, which in turn forwards the
data to the issuing bank.
The Association determines each bank’s net debit position. The Association’s settlement financial institution
coordinates issuing and acquiring settlement positions. Members with net debit positions (normally the
issuing banks) send funds to the Association’s settlement financial institution, which transmits owed funds
to the receiving bank (generally the acquiring banks).
The settlement process takes place using a separate payment network such as Fedwire
The issuing bank presents the transaction on the cardholder’s next billing statement
The cardholder pays the bank, either in full or via monthly payments
Source: Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, Risk Management Examination Manual for Credit Card Activities (2007), at 165.
6
7
8
1
2
3
5
4
A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Nonbank Financials, Fintech, and Innovation
Appendix C • Additional Background
217
Debit Card Networks
Debit card networks are similar to credit card networks in that they are all private entities that
maintain their own rules, regulations, and fee structures through private agreements and industry
standards. Debit card networks are distinct in that they process a dierent type of transaction.
Credit cards underlie a loan account with a bank — in authorizing the transaction, the card
network is asking if the bank wants to approve addition to an open line of credit. Debit cards are
attached to a pre-funded bank account — in authorizing the transaction, the card network is, in
essence, asking the bank if sucient funds are available for payment.
545
ere are two dierent types of debit networks in the United States: signature debit
546
and PIN
debit.
547
Whereas all debit networks generally function as four-party systems (like the credit card
networks) the infrastructure diers slightly between signature and PIN networks. Signature debit
uses the credit card network infrastructure, and thus requires a “dual-message” — one message for
authentication and one message for clearing. PIN debit, which evolved from ATM networks, uses
a “single-message” authentication and clearing method whereby all the information is transmitted
in one message.
548
is aects the speed of clearance and settlement between the two types of
networks. Dual-message transactions are stored and then combined in a batch that is sent all at
one time to the network providers. is is typically done once a day, but depending on merchant
volume could be done more or less frequently. Single-message transactions have all the informa-
tion necessary to clear the transaction at the time of authentication, with no need for batching or
separate clearance. For both network types, there is only one settlement cuto time, which is when
funds are moved and interchange fees are determined. e speed at which this process is completed
varies from same day for single-message, and upward of two days for dual-message.
549
Signature debit networks generally charge higher interchange fees than PIN debit networks.
According to the Federal Reserve, for all transactions for year-end 2016, the average interchange
fees per transaction were for signature debit $0.33 (0.89% of average transaction value), and for
PIN debit $0.24 (0.64% of average transaction value).
550
Signature debit networks are owned by
the branded credit card networks whose logo is shown on the front of a debit card. PIN debit
networks are owned both by credit card networks as well as merchant processors that provide
back-end service; they are listed on the reverse side of a debit card.
545. This represents the basic structure of the transactions. Nuances may exist, for instance, banks may allow cus-
tomers to overdraw, or let the balance go below zero on their bank accounts.
546.
Signature debit networks: Visa, Mastercard, and Discover.
5 47. PIN debit networks (parent company): ACCEL (Fiserv), AFFN (FIS), ATH (Evertec), Credit Union 24 (Credit
Union co-op), Interlink (Visa), Jeanie (Vantiv), Maestro (Mastercard), NetWorks, NYCE (FIS), PULSE (Discover),
SHAZAM (member owned), STAR (First Data), and China UnionPay.
548.
Debit Card Interchange Fees and Routing (June 30, 2011) [76 Fed. Reg. 43394, 43395 (July 20, 2011)].
549. Susan Herbst-Murphy, Clearing and Settlement of Interbank Card Transactions: A MasterCard Tutorial for
Federal Reserve Payments Analysts, Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia Discussion Paper (2013), at 7-13,
22, available at: https://www.philadelphiafed.org/-/media/consumer-finance-institute/payment-cards-center/
publications/discussion-papers/2013/D-2013-October-Clearing-Settlement.pdf.
550.
Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Average Debit Card Interchange Fee by Payment Card
Network (last updated July 14, 2017), available at: https://www.federalreserve.gov/paymentsystems/regii-aver-
age-interchange-fee.htm.
A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Nonbank Financials, Fintech, and Innovation
Appendix C • Additional Background
218
Regulation of debit cards and credit cards is dierent. While both types of card transaction are
regulated for consumer protection purposes, the rules derive from dierent statutes
551
and the
implementing regulations
552
are codied separately. In some cases, these two regulations may have
similar requirements that are implemented dierently due to the nature of the product, such as con-
sumer disclosures. Other requirements may be completely distinct, like the Durbin Amendment’s
application solely for debit cards.
553
And yet other requirements may be superseded by stricter
contractual requirements imposed by the card networks, such as the card networks’ requirement
that all unauthorized card transactions carry zero liability for the cardholder.
554
As for usage, debit cards see higher transaction volumes and values than credit cards. is disparity
has been true for more than a decade and the popularity of debit cards in relation to credit cards
continues to grow.
551. Credit cards: Truth in Lending Act, 15 U.S.C. § 1601 et seq.; Debit cards: Electronic Fund Transfer Act, 15
U.S.C. § 1693 et seq.
552.
Credit cards: Regulation Z, 12 C.F.R. § 1026 et seq.; Debit cards: Regulation E, 12 C.F.R. § 1005 et seq.
553.
15 U.S.C. § 1693o-2.
554. See Visa, Visa Core Rules and Visa Product and Service Rules, Rule 1.4.6.1 (updated Oct. 2017), available at:
https://usa.visa.com/dam/VCOM/download/about-visa/visa-rules-public.pdf.
Figure C2: Total Number of Card Payments (billions) and Value ($ trillions)
2015 2016
Number Value Number Value
Total card payments 103.5 5.65 111.1 5.98
Debit cards 69.6 2.56 73.8 2.7
Non-prepaid 59 2.27 63 2.41
In person 49.5 1.58 52.1 1.66
Chip 0.4 0.02 8.4 0.37
No chip 49.1 1.56 43.7 1.29
Remote 9.5 0.69 10.9 0.75
Prepaid 10.6 0.3 10.7 0.29
General purpose 4.3 0.15 4.4 0.15
In person 3.6 0.1 3.6 0.1
Chip 0 0 0.1 0.01
No chip 3.6 0.1 3.5 0.1
Remote 0.8 0.05 0.8 0.05
Private label 3.6 0.07 3.8 0.07
Electronic benefits transfers (EBT) 2.6 0.08 2.5 0.07
Credit cards 33.9 3.08 37. 3 3.27
General purpose 31 2.8 34.3 3
In person 21.7 1.3 23.4 1.36
Chip 1 0.08 6.6 0.47
No chip 20.7 1.22 16.8 0.89
Remote 9.3 1.5 10.9 1.64
Private label 2.8 0.28 3.1 0.27
Source: Federal Reserve System, The Federal Reserve Payments Study - 2017 Annual Supplement.
A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Nonbank Financials, Fintech, and Innovation
Appendix C • Additional Background
219
Access to card networks in the United States is largely set by private agreement and the system
includes controls that ensure that each rm with direct access has a comprehensive and robust
regulatory framework in place. Treasury believes that this system is working well and has supported
innovative new solutions in the payments space. Treasury supports the private card networks’
continual evaluation of their rulebooks in light of new entrants and innovations to the payments
infrastructure to ensure that the systems continue to work well for all involved players.
Automated Clearing House (ACH)
e ACH network
555
is at the core of the payments system as one of the chief payment systems in
the United States. It is a system that processes payments and moves money between nancial
institutions. ere are currently two network operators, Electronic Payments Network and
FedACH (owned by the Federal Reserve Banks). e ACH system is used for payments such as:
direct deposit, government benets delivery, bill pay, and transfers between consumers and busi-
nesses, among others. e rules for ACH networks are set by NACHA — a private, not-for-prot,
industry association. Importantly, by rule, only insured depository institutions are allowed access
to the ACH networks.
According to NACHA, in 2017 ACH networks processed approximately 21.5 billion transac-
tions with a total value of about $46.8 trillion.
556
An originator — which could be an individual
or an entity — rst provides payment instructions that then enter the banking system. ACH
555. See generally NACHA, ACH Network: How It Works, available at: https://www.nacha.org/ach-network.
556.
NACHA, 2017 ACH Network Volume & Value, available at: https://www.nacha.org/system/files/resources/
ACH-Network-Volume-and-Value-2017_2.pdf.
Number (billions)
Value ($ trillions)
Figure C3: Distribution of Core Noncash Payments by Type for 2015
Bank
Debit
cards
69.5
Debit cards
$2.6
Credit cards
$3.2
Credit
cards
33.8
Checks
17.3
Checks
$26.8
ACH
credit
transfers
$90.5
ACH credit transfers
13.6
ACH debit transfers
9.9
ACH
debit
transfers
$54.8
Note: Debit card includes non-prepaid debit, general-purpose prepaid, private-label prepaid, and electronic benefit transfers. Credit
card includes general purpose and private label. Check, automated clearinghouse (ACH) credit transfers, and ACH debit transfers
include interbank and on-us.
Source: Federal Reserve System, The Federal Reserve Payments Study 2016, at 3.
A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Nonbank Financials, Fintech, and Innovation
Appendix C • Additional Background
220
payments are processed in batches by banks — the originating nancial institution aggregates
payment information into batches before sending to the two network operators who then net
and route payments to receiving nancial institutions. ACH payments can be either debit
(pull)
557
or credit (push)
558
payments. Debit payments settle in one day while credit payments
settle in one to two days. In 2015, ACH transferred the highest value of payments among
retail payment options.
Wire Transfer Services
Wire transfer services are systems that are primarily used for large value, wholesale payments
between banks and businesses. In the United States, there are two primary wire service networks
that operate domestically — Fedwire and CHIPS. Fedwire is owned and operated by the Federal
Reserve Banks; CHIPS is a competing private sector network with 50 direct bank participants.
559
Unlike the ACH networks, the wire networks’ operating rules are set by the operators themselves.
Fedwire is a real time gross settlement service that clears and settles transactions immediately. In
2017, Fedwire processed over 150 million transactions with a total value of over $740 trillion;
the average Fedwire transaction value was $4.85 million.
560
In comparison, CHIPS is a real-time
nal settlement system that matches, nets, and settles payments. In order to function in real time,
member banks must prefund (using Fedwire) a joint CHIPS account at the New York Federal
Reserve Bank. In 2017, CHIPS processed over 112 million transactions with a total value of over
$393 trillion; the average CHIPS transaction value was $3.49 million.
561
Checks and Cash
Checks and cash are two other ways to make payments. Checks are cleared in one of ve ways:
562
(1) clearing “on-us” checks internally on a bank’s own books; (2) presenting checks directly to the
paying bank; (3) forwarding checks to a correspondent bank; (4) exchanging checks through a
private clearinghouse; (5) forwarding checks to the Federal Reserve for processing. Today, nearly all
of the checks that the Federal Reserve processes are electronic images of the paper checks.
5 57. For example, when a consumer pays a utility bill by authorizing the utility company to pull the payment from his
or her bank account. This could be done by visiting the company’s website to input payment information, for
instance.
558.
For example, when a consumer logs on to his or her bank’s online banking portal and schedules an online bill
pay transaction that the bank will then push to the payee.
559.
See Fedwire at https://www.frbservices.org/financial-services/wires/index.html and CHIPS at https://www.the-
clearinghouse.org/payment-systems/chips.
560.
Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Fedwire Funds Service — Annual (2018), available at:
https://www.federalreserve.gov/paymentsystems/files/fedfunds_ann.pdf.
561.
The Clearing House, Annual Statistics from 1970 to 2018 (2018), available at: https://www.theclearinghouse.
org/-/media/tch/pay%20co/chips/reports%20and%20guides/chips%20volume%20through%20jan%202018.
pdf.
562.
Federal Reserve Bank of New York, Check Processing (Mar. 2013), available at: https://www.newyorkfed.org/
aboutthefed/fedpoint/fed03.html.
A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Nonbank Financials, Fintech, and Innovation
Appendix C • Additional Background
221
Check usage has been declining since the 1990s and continues to decline.
Cash is still the most frequently used payment method, however, its share of total payments is
declining.
Other Payments Players
In addition to the core payment systems that connect nancial institutions with other nancial
institutions, there are a number of nonbank rms that serve as intermediaries and layer between
the banking system and the ultimate end user. In some cases, other intermediaries may also layer
on top or beside these intermediate rms to provide a specic or supplementary specialty service
(such as tokenization, for example), which adds to the complexity of the payments system. is
Figure C4: Changes in the Number of Consumer Noncash Payments P
er Household,
Per Month, 2000-2015
-15
Debit cards
Credit cards
Checks written
ACH transfers
0153
04
5
Note: ACH is automated clearinghouse. Debit card includes non-prepaid debit, general-purpose prepaid, and private-label prepaid
(including electronic benefits transfers). Credit card includes general purpose and private label.
Source: Federal Reserve System, The Federal Reserve Payments Study 2016, at 4.
38.4
6.9
5.1
-12.2
2012 2017
Figure C5: T
ransactions by Each Payment Instrument (percent)
Cash
40%
Cash
27%
Credit
17%
Credit
25%
Checks
7%
Checks
6%
Electronic
7%
Electronic
8%
Other
4%
Other
4%
Debit
25%
Debit
32%
Source: Surveys of Consumer Payment Choice, 2012 and 2017, Federal Reserve Bank of Boston.
A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Nonbank Financials, Fintech, and Innovation
Appendix C • Additional Background
222
section provides only a brief, high-level overview of the general categories of players in this space.
While not always the most well-known, these rms provide crucial services to connect end users.
Nonbank Payment Processors
Payment processors are generally nonbank technology companies that provide vendor services to
bank clients by processing electronic payments. ese rms specialize in processing card payments
on both sides of a transaction — as merchant acquirer and/or issuer processor. Some banks process
their own payments in-house; some banks enter into a co-owned joint venture with a payment
processor, whereby the processor supplies the technology to process payments and the bank main-
tains the merchant relationships; many banks wholly outsource the processing function to a third-
party processor.
563
e role of processors in the payments ecosystem is best understood through the
outsourcing model. Here, the processor in essence stands in the shoes of the acquiring bank and/or
the issuing bank during the authorization, routing, and clearing of card transactions.
564
Since payment processors are nonbank institutions, they must have a bank sponsor in order to
access the card networks. Processors must follow the rules of the card networks, and are exam-
ined regularly by the networks. Processors are also examined by the banking agencies through
uniform FFIEC guidance under the bank regulators’ Bank Service Company Act authorities;
however as these authorities regulate the third-party and vendor services that are provided to the
bank, the bank sponsors are generally responsible for the processors’ conduct when processing
on the card networks.
Payment processing is a very competitive business that is largely driven by the rm that can charge
the lowest fees. Processors themselves have diversied and tried to gain a competitive advantage
by engaging in related businesses that include products and services such as: prepaid cards, PIN
debit network ownership, providing hardware (such as payment terminals), and providing software
solutions for small businesses (such as for accounts and inventory management, etc.).
Payment Service Providers (PSPs)
Technology has allowed new entrants to enter the business of accepting and processing merchant’s
and consumer’s point of sale or online/mobile payments. In many cases, these rms are serving
small businesses who may not have merchant relationships with banks, or compete with bank
services through the quality of the software and user experience. PSPs are generally nonbank tech-
nology companies that are responding to customer demand for faster, more convenient services for
both end users and merchants.
While PSPs provide merchants, for example, with a way to accept and process payments, they do
not directly compete with traditional payment processors — instead they function as yet another
563. Office of the Comptroller of the Currency, Merchant Processing, Comptroller’s Handbook (Aug. 2014), at 2-5,
available at: https://www.occ.treas.gov/publications/publications-by-type/comptrollers-handbook/merchant-pro-
cessing/pub-ch-merchant-processing.pdf.
564. See, e.g., First Data Corporation, Form 10-K Annual Report (Feb. 20, 2018), at 6-7, available at: https://www.
sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/883980/000088398018000006/a12311710-k.htm.
A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Nonbank Financials, Fintech, and Innovation
Appendix C • Additional Background
223
layer.
565
As nonbank entities, PSPs also do not have direct access to the payment infrastructure and
therefore must have a business relationship with a bank. ere may also be a traditional nonbank
payment processor between these rms and their bank for payment processing purposes. Since
PSPs layer on top of the existing payments infrastructure, they are disrupters more on the front-
end consumer-facing side of user experience than on the back-end processes aecting the ultimate
movement of money.
PSPs, like payment processors, must adhere to the rules of the card networks, even if they rely on
banks and payment processors to process transactions through the system. To be a service provider
for a card network, a rm generally must register with the card network, ensure that they are PCI-
DSS compliant, and be examined annually by the card network.
566
Additionally, PSPs are generally
licensed money transmitters and are therefore subject to the applicable licensing, registration, and
oversight requirements in multiple jurisdictions.
565. See, e.g., Square, Inc., Form 10-K Annual Report (Feb. 27, 2018), at 9-11, 19, 22, available at: https://www.
sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1512673/000151267318000004/a10-kfilingsquareinc2017.htm; PayPal
Holdings, Inc., Form 10-K Annual Report (Feb. 7, 2018), at 15, available at: https://www.sec.gov/Archives/
edgar/data/1633917/000163391718000029/pypl201710-k.htm.
566.
See, e.g., Visa, The Visa Payment Facilitator Model: A Framework for Merchant Aggregation (May 2, 2014),
available at: https://usa.visa.com/dam/VCOM/download/merchants/02-MAY-2014-Visa-Payment-Facilita-
torModel.pdf, and Mastercard, What Service Providers Need to Know About PCI Compliance, available at:
https://www.mastercard.us/en-us/merchants/safety-security/security-recommendations/service-providers-need-
to-know.html.
A Financial System
That Creates Economic Opportunities
Nonbank Financials, Fintech,
and Innovation
A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities Nonbank Financials, Fintech, and Innovation
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