Volume 4 Issue 1 Article 1
August 2019
Deaf Characters in Young Adult Literature Deaf Characters in Young Adult Literature
Kimberly Gangwish
University of Nebraska at Omaha
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DEAF CHARACTERS IN YOUNG ADULT LITERATURE
Kimberly Gangwish
University of Nebraska, Omaha
Abstract: The multicultural literature movement has its roots in civil rights and the desire to give
voice and representation to marginalized cultures. Literature is a societal artifact that can inform
and influence the development of cultural identity. Deaf culture is a unique culture that is
underrepresented in young adult literature. This underrepresentation places more importance on
accurate representations of Deaf culture since young adult fiction may be the only exposure to Deaf
culture that both hearing and deaf teenagers may have. Accurate representation in literature is
necessary for deaf to see themselves in what they read and for hearing to better understand this
unique culture. This study analyzed 20 young adult novels published between 2000 and 2017. Each
novel featured a deaf or hard of hearing teenager. A phenomenography approach with a qualitative
content analysis method was utilized to inform a better understanding of the representation of deaf
characters and Deaf culture within current young adult literature. Models of disability as
established by Clogston (1990, 1991, 1993) and Haller (1995) were used to focus the coding
analysis. Two research questions were addressed. What model of disability do these books
represent? What aspects of Deaf culture, communication issues, and societal issues are represented
in young adult fiction? Results of the study determined the most prevalent model of disability
represented was the traditional medical model. The coding also revealed themes surrounding Deaf
culture, the issues in communication that deaf face, and societal issues surrounding the deaf.
Stories have power. From the oral tradition of telling stories, through today’s modern methods of
storytelling, stories have passed on knowledge from generation to generation. Stories can document the history of a
culture and can shape and impact an individual’s cultural identity and understanding of self. Since adolescence is a
time of discovery when young adults learn more about the world and their place in it, young adult literature can
impact the cultural identity development of adolescents. Reading about cultures and characters can help adolescents
form connections to and understandings of not only their cultural identity, but also that of others (Koss, 2015, Louie,
2005). The power of literature means that how a culture is portrayed in literature impacts how young adults learn
about not only themselves, but society as well.
Because of the impact literary representations have on cultural identity, the representation of cultures needs
to be authentic. Therefore, it is important to understand stereotypes in literature and how they impact the view of a
culture; otherwise these representations can reinforce negative stereotypes and lead to misunderstandings concerning
the culture (Gopalakrishnan, 2011, pg. 214). Without accurate representation of a culture in literature, a method of
learning about cultures in an authentic way is lost.
It is also important that authentic cultural representation be easily accessible and available. The social
power of cultural groups is also represented in literature and those who lack cultural power tend to be excluded from
literature and other important forms of cultural representation (Taxel, 1994). The publication and selection of books
assigns value to the book and its contents. If the literature is not published or cannot be found, then the opportunity
for learning about the culture and its inherent value is missed. Deaf culture is found in few modern, young adult
literary works. This makes access to Deaf culture in literature limited—and makes it even more important that the
representation of Deaf culture in those young adult books be authentic.
Because of the impact of literature on the development of cultural identity, it is important to know if Deaf
culture is not only represented in young adult literature, but represented accurately. The purpose of this study was to
investigate how deaf characters were represented in young adult fiction published between 2000 and 2017. The
study applied a phenomenography approach with a qualitative content analysis method to inform a better
understanding of the representation of deaf characters and Deaf culture within current young adult literature.
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Gangwish: Deaf in Young Adult Literature
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What Defines Deaf Culture?
Deaf culture is not defined by a region or a shared ethnic background, but rather by a language and shared
experience. Deaf culture is comprised of many variables and its members may encounter various obstacles and
frustrations because of misunderstanding or lack of knowledge by those outside of Deaf culture (Padden &
Humphries, 2005). While many people may believe Deaf culture is defined by a lack of hearing, it is not. Rather it
is defined by a focus on the beliefs and practices among deaf and the visual nature of their language. Padden &
Humphries (2005) stated:
As a community made up of some individuals who do not speak and some who do, some who do not hear
at all and some who hear some, and all of whom draw the label of “disabled” by the larger community,
Deaf people are seen as clearly not like anyone else. We often feel besieged, controlled, and patronized,
even as our remarkable sign language is celebrated and admired in public (p. 7).
Those who associate with Deaf culture may be deaf, hard-of-hearing, or hearing. They may have grown up in deaf
or hearing households. They may have attended deaf or hearing schools. The culture is defined by a personal
decision to become a part of the culture because of the shared values and beliefs. This study will utilize the common
convention of the capitalized word, Deaf, in reference to the cultural group and its practices, and the lowercase
word, deaf, in reference to the medical condition of hearing loss. For the purposes of this study, Deaf culture is
defined by a focus on beliefs and practices among the Deaf, especially the primary role that sign language plays in
their community (Padden & Humphries, 2005).
It is because of the many variances within Deaf culture, that learning about it and becoming a part of it may
be difficult. For instance, a deaf person who grows up in a hearing household and attends a hearing school may not
have the opportunity to learn about Deaf culture. In many cases, Deaf culture is learned through interaction with the
Deaf. If that interaction is not available, a deaf person may not have the opportunity to learn about a culture that
could have great impact on their life.
Mainstream society may view hearing loss as a disability, but Deaf culture rejects this concept and instead
self-identifies as a unique cultural group brought about by the visual nature of their language (Bailes, 2002). Willard
(1998) addressed the perception of disability as portrayed in the media. He stated:
If anyone has anything to overcome, I would say it’s the people in the media.
They are the ones who keep feeding the misconception that people with disabilities are not happy or whole
until they have overcome their disability. Instead, why not recognize that a disability is often a part of our
lives, something that makes us who we are? Our ears may not work as well as we’d like, but we have
nothing to be ashamed of and certainly nothing that needs to be overcome (p. 274).
In the United States, American Sign Language (ASL) is the primary language of the Deaf. This language is
very visual in nature and is one of the core components of Deaf culture. Ariella Dramin, a current student at
Gallaudet remarks, “We’re a community, we’re fine. We have a language” (Shah, 2017). The unique nature of ASL
makes it a pathway towards bringing Deaf culture together and has become an avenue of pride for the community.
Although many deaf individuals can read lips and voice, Deaf culture acknowledges that ASL is their language.
It is important to remember that being born deaf does not make a person automatically a member of Deaf
culture. Since Lane, Hoffmeister and Bahan (1996) found that “Nine out of ten deaf people come from hearing
homes where deaf language and culture are rarely to be found,” many deaf may not have the opportunity to interact
with and learn about the larger Deaf culture. This can lead to a struggle during adolescence in the development of
cultural identity with Deaf because many deaf children in these circumstances will not learn about Deaf cultural
heritage from their hearing parents (Lane, Hoffmeister & Bahan, 1996, p. 160).
Lane, Hoffmeister and Bahan (1996) discussed the impact of having culturally different parents on deaf
children. This situation can lead to a loss of connection with their Deaf identity. It can delay the acquisition of ASL.
In many cases, deaf children born to hearing parents are faced with cochlear implants and speech drills in order to
make them more acceptable in hearing society. But these choices can lead to lack of acceptance by Deaf culture. An
anomaly exists in these situations though, because deaf children may seek out Deaf culture in order to identify with
their language, find role models, and develop an understanding of the unique Deaf culture.
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Media and Cultural Identity
Media, and for the focus of this study, literature in particular, as a societal artifact can impact not only view
of self, but also influence how a culture is viewed by those outside of that culture. Fiction is a way of reflecting
reality and can represent the concerns of that culture as well as how those concerns are addressed. It is a type of
cultural artifact that reflects the perceptions and attitudes of society at the time, and as such it can inform and shape
understanding about the values of a specific culture (Fairclough, 1989; Guella, 1983; Harris & Baskin, 1987; Taxel,
1994). According to Guella (1983), “Fiction is one way of presenting a picture of reality…literature represents a
culture’s ideas about the concerns of that culture and how people treat those concerns” (p. 25).
Literature can be a mirror of a culture and can help to facilitate young adults’ understanding and acceptance
not only of themselves, but of those of other cultures (Gavigan and Kurtts, 2011; Hebert and Kent, 2000). Although
this is important for all cultures, underrepresented cultures have an even greater need for representation in literature.
Mainstream cultures have many avenues to help develop cultural identity. Those individuals who fall outside of the
mainstream can lack the avenues to learn more about their culture and develop their self-identity. The lack of
representation can also lead to misunderstandings by those in the mainstream about various subcultures. Virtually
absent in discussions of multicultural children’s books is the importance of including characters who are Deaf, that
is, deaf people who consider themselves a member of a cultural minority (Bailes, 2002).
Since many deaf adolescents may not grow up in the Deaf culture, the portrayal of that culture through
societal artifacts can have significant impact on their own identity development as Deaf, as well as their
understanding of the culture as a whole. “Deaf characters in fiction act as role models for young adults. A positive
portrayal of deaf characters benefits deaf adolescents whether or not they see themselves as biologically deaf or
culturally deaf” (Pajka-West, 2010). Deaf adolescents need to be able to find deaf characters in the literature that
they read, especially if that is one of the few sources they have to understand this unique culture. Fields, Kim and
Spencer (2016) asked deaf students how they felt about deaf characters in classic literature that was written to evoke
pity. The students did not identify with the characters written in this manner. “Our students believe that authentic
deaf characters should resemble them: capable, communicative, social, and intelligent” (p. 94). Since the deaf
characters they had read about weren’t portrayed in this way, the students felt no connection with them.
Deaf in Literature
There have been few studies that focus on how deaf and the Deaf culture are portrayed in literature. The
existing studies have focused on whether deaf characters were represented from a cultural or a pathological
viewpoint. In other words, the researchers tried to determine whether the medical aspect of being deaf and the
portrayal of deafness as a disability was more common than the representation of Deaf as a unique culture with its
own language.
A study by Golos and Moses (2011) analyzed the portrayal of deaf characters in children’s picture books.
Out of the 20 picture books that were chosen for their study, only one was written by a deaf author. The results of
their study found that deaf characters were more often presented from a medical or pathological model. Deafness
was portrayed as a disability that needed fixing. The authors stated,
The results of the present study indicate that children’s books continue to portray deaf characters more
from a medical than a cultural perspective. This suggests that children who are reading the books will see
deaf children portrayed as disabled and having a medical problem that can and should be fixed in order to
make them hearing…and that without these interventions, deaf individuals will be angry, isolated, and/or
unable to function in everyday life (Golos & Moses, 2011, p. 279).
Pajka-West (2010) also looked at whether deaf characters were portrayed from a cultural or pathological
perspective, but in this study young adult fiction books by both and hearing authors were used. The study found that
deaf authors were more likely to utilize a pathological perspective than hearing authors. Pajka-West offers possible
reasons for this result:
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First, the deaf authors have grown up deaf and perhaps experienced more scenarios similar to those
presented from the pathological perspective model. Even if the deaf authors live more culturally Deaf
lifestyles today, authors include their experiences growing up in their writing. Second, there are less deaf
characters in the books written by deaf authors and more characters and more character variety in the books
written by the hearing authors. When there are fewer deaf characters interacting with other deaf characters,
these characters tend to interact with more hearing characters who are less likely to be aware of the cultural
perspective. And third, with decreased populations of culturally Deaf born to culturally Deaf individuals, it
seems consistent that it may be more difficult to obtain a book from a Deaf of Deaf author (2010, p. 8). The
study utilized three groups of readers: (a) adults who had attended a special program or residential school
for the deaf, used ASL, and identified as deaf, (b) adults who were friends, family, co-workers connected
with those who identified as deaf, and (c) hearing adults who were not aware of or a part of Deaf culture.
The researcher found that the “Deaf participants, along with the participants as a whole, preferred the books
written by the hearing authors as better describing their perceptions of realistic deaf people, for presenting
deaf characters adequately and realistically, and for the hearing authors’ portrayals of deaf characters
matching with their perceptions of deaf people” (Pajka-West, 2010, p. 8).
Guella (1983) conducted a literature review of short stories featuring deaf characters. The researcher
proposed that fiction is one way of presenting reality and “the picture of deafness does not approximate the life of
those in the deaf community” (p. 25). The literature review found that deaf characters were sometimes represented
as grotesque and objects of laughter or pity. The lack of hearing by a character led others to think of him as a fool
because of the lack of interaction and understanding of what is happening around him. Guella did find that stories
written after the 1930s offered more insight into deafness. Guella posits that this was due to an increase in education
of the deaf and of the general public about the deaf.
Fields, Kim and Spencer (2016) later conducted a literature review which looked at the inauthentic
portrayal of deaf in classical literature. Examples of literature taught in high school English classes included deaf
characters portrayed in a negative or foolish manner. The Wife of Bath in Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales, Quasimodo
in Hugo’s The Hunchback of Notre Dame, Jim’s daughter, the King, and the Duke in Twain’s The Adventures of
Huckleberry Finn, Misses Tutti and Frutti in Lee’s To Kill a Mockingbird, and finally, Holden Caulfield in
Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye all give inauthentic portrayals of deaf characters. If these are the only deaf
characters adolescents are presented with, then their understanding of the Deaf culture will be misinformed.
Methodology
The purpose of this study was to investigate how deaf characters were represented in young adult fiction
published between 2000 and 2017. Various resources, both print and online, were used to develop a list of titles that
fit the criteria for this study. These resources were used to find young adult titles of fictional literature that included
deaf characters and culture. For online research, the search terms of “deaf”, “fiction”, “disability”, and “young
adult” were used in multiple combinations. Utilizing these various resources, a list of 20 young adult titles published
between 2000 and 2017 (see Table 1) was curated for this study. These titles were fiction and had a deaf or hard-of-
hearing character in either a primary or secondary role. Hard-of-hearing characters were included in the final list in
order to include more titles in the study. All titles were published after 2000 in order to utilize books that were still
in print and would be more likely to be of interest to current young adult readers. All books had a 12 to 18-year-old
as a main character.
Table 1
Curated Book List by Publication Year
Title
Author
Publication
Year
Primary/Secondary
Character
Of Sound Mind
Jean Ferris
2001
Secondary
Hurt Go Happy
Ginny Rorby
2006
Primary
Read My Lips
Terry Brown
2008
Primary
The Orange Houses
Paul Griffin
2009
Primary
Five Flavors of Dumb
Anthony John
2010
Primary
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The Dark Days of Hamburger
Halpin
Josh Berk
2010
Primary
Whisper
Chrissie Keighery
2011
Primary
Portal Through the Pond
David Anderson
2012
Secondary
Strong Deaf
Lynn McElfresh
2012
Secondary
Sway
Jennifer Gibson
2012
Primary
Compass
Jennifer Gibson
2013
Primary
Invisible
Cecily Paterson
2013
Primary
My Haunting Love
J.S. Wilsoncroft
2013
Primary
Sounds of Silence
Phillip Tomasso
2013
Primary
Silence in Center
Jody Studdard
2014
Primary
Waiting for a Sign
Esty Schachter
2014
Primary
Silence
Deborah Lytton
2015
Primary
Until I’m Safe
Jane Grace
2015
Primary
Tone Deaf
Olivia Rivers
2016
Primary
You’re Welcome Universe
Whitney Gardner
2017
Primary
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
The study utilized a phenomenography framework and a qualitative content analysis method to view the
selected young adult titles and their representations of deaf and Deaf culture. Phenomenography is a method of
qualitative research which allows the researcher to determine the different ways in which people experience,
conceptualize, perceive, and understand various aspects of, and phenomena in, the world around them (Marton,
1986). Phenomenography is not focused on statements about the world or culture itself, but instead is focused on
how a person develops conceptions about the world. Phenomenography seeks to explain both people’s conceptions
of the world and their mistaken conceptions of reality. Using phenomenography as a framework means this study
was not focused on what specifically defined deaf culture, but rather on how the representation of deaf characters in
young adult literature could impact an adolescent’s understanding of deaf culture.
There are various methods for conducting content analysis. For this study, the directed content analysis
approach was used in conjunction with discourse analysis. Discourse analysis is a qualitative content analysis
approach that examines text at a level beyond sentences and focuses on how phenomena are represented
(Krippendorff, 2004, p. 16). Directed content analysis utilizes a more structured process than traditional content
analysis. In this method, researchers use existing research or theories to help identify the key concepts of the text for
developing the initial coding categories of analysis (Potter & Levine-Donnerstein, 1999). This previous research is
used to develop operational definitions of the categories used in the analysis. It is important to note that these
categories are the initial categories and that other categories may be developed as the process of analysis of text
occurs.
The initial categories for this study were from those developed by Clogston (1990, 1991) and Haller
(1995). Clogston (1990, 1991) developed five models of disability representation that contained both traditional and
progressive categories. Haller (1995) added to these in light of the American with Disabilities Act and developed
eight media models of disability that covered both the traditional and progressive models. The traditional model
depicts a medical view of disability, whereas the progressive model focuses on the social aspects of disability
(Kama, 2004). Three initial categories for coding were chosen to represent various points on the spectrum of
representation of disability in media: traditional medical model, supercrip model, and progressive cultural pluralism.
Traditional models depict a person to be either defective or superhuman. They experience problems
because of their disability that are derived from medical reasons. The role of society in these models is to cure the
person or aid them medically. The traditional medical model focuses on the disability as an illness or a malfunction.
For the purpose of this study, that means deafness is seen in young adult books as a medical malfunction that needs
to be fixed. In this model, the character is seen from a medical point of view as having a deficiency. This model is a
negative representation of an individual and a culture, taking away the individual’s rights as a member of society
and making them a problem in need of fixing. Individuals in this model are set apart from others by their disability
and often face feelings of isolation and loneliness.
The supercrip model is also a traditional representation of disability. In this case the individual is
“portrayed as deviant because of ‘superhuman feats’, or as ‘special’ because he or she lives a regular life ‘in spite of’
their disability” (Burns & Haller, 2015). A supercrip can perform day to day tasks, but that capability is represented
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as a great accomplishment, something out of the ordinary. A supercrip can also be portrayed as an individual who
can perform extraordinary feats—they are superhuman (Kama, 2004). In either instance, they are not portrayed as a
mainstream member of society.
Another important model is the progressive cultural pluralism model. The progressive model of disability
does not focus on the physical aspect, but rather the societal aspect of disability. In this case, it is society that has a
problem with its views of disability and needs to be fixed, not the individual. In the progressive model, individuals
do not need to be fixed and are not set apart because of their disability (Haller, 1995). Progressive models present
people with disability in a more positive light. The cultural pluralism model portrays these individuals as multi-
faceted, well-rounded people. They are seen first as people, not as disabled (Burns & Haller, 2015). In these
representations, the disability is not a focus. The individual as a member of society is the focus and the disability is
just a characteristic of that individual. They are seen as more than their disability.
Procedure
The curated books were read the first time to determine if they matched the criteria for the study. The next
step of the study was to critically read the texts with the coding categories in mind, while also determining if other
general categories existed. White and Marsh (2006) discuss methods in which to track the coding categories and
concepts. For the purpose of this study, concept memos were used. These “logically focus on emerging concepts, the
distinctive ways in which these are phrased, and his [researcher] own interpretation of the concepts” (White and
Marsh, 2006, p. 37-38). The curated books were read with the three models of disability as the primary guide for
concept memos, but other possible categories were added by the researcher as they arose.
Coding of the books was done at the sentence level. Sentences coded were selected based on information
about the disability models of deafness, Deaf culture, communication issues, and societal interaction with the deaf.
Sentences that were critically determined to be relevant to the study were entered into Dedoose, an online program
for data analysis. The researcher then read through each sentence a third time in the program and coded them
according to the selected criteria. Each read through allowed the researcher to more critically examine the sentence
and its connotation in the context of representation of deaf characters.
Research Question 1
What model of disability do these books represent?
Coding of each book for the three models showed the primary model represented was the medical model of
disability. In the 20 books, content supporting the medical model was found 566 times. The supercrip model was
found 116 times and the cultural pluralism model was found 36 times (see Table 2).
The two traditional models of disability, medical and supercrip, occurred a total of 682 times. In contrast,
the progressive model of cultural pluralism was only found 36 times in the 20 young adult novels. This wide
disparity of representation between the traditional models—which are more negative in scope—and the more
positive cultural pluralism model revealed that deaf characters in these young adult novels focused on a more
negative representation of the deaf. Because of this, adolescents—both hearing and deaf—upon reading these books
may see the deaf represented in a manner that highlights the disability, isolation and differences of being deaf.
Table 2
Disability Model Code Occurrence
Book Title
Medical Model
Supercrip Model
Cultural Pluralism
Model
Compass
20
3
0
The Dark Days of Hamburger Halpin
38
15
0
Five Flavors of Dumb
57
13
0
Hurt Go Happy
64
2
4
Invisible
14
3
2
My Haunting Love
6
1
1
Of Sound Mind
10
0
0
The Orange Houses
29
2
0
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Portal Through the Pond
2
0
1
Read My Lips
29
8
2
Silence
22
13
1
Silence in Center
18
5
5
Sounds of Silence
35
0
5
Strong Deaf
14
3
0
Sway
18
3
0
Tone Deaf
34
8
5
Until I’m Safe
8
8
0
Waiting For A Sign
8
0
0
Whisper
77
3
6
You’re Welcome, Universe
63
26
4
Totals
566
116
36
Note. The medical model is a traditional model that focuses on the disability as an illness or malfunction to be fixed.
These characters may feel isolated and do not participate in normal activities. The supercrip model is also a
traditional model. In this model, the disability still receives attention but the individuals are considered special or
super because they live in spite of their disability. The progressive model of cultural pluralism portrays these
individuals as multifaceted and well-rounded. The person is the primary focus, not the disability (Clogston, 1990,
1991, 1993; Haller, 1995).
Research Question 2
The analysis of the 20 books in the study led to the development of a second research question: What
aspects of Deaf culture, communication issues, and societal issues are represented in young adult fiction?
Coding of the 20 books found representation of different aspects of Deaf culture. Communication issues
were found 252 times. Information about Deaf culture was found 95 times. Issues surrounding Deaf culture were
represented 162 times in the books (see Table 3). Examples of the representation of Deaf culture and issues that
impact that culture were found 509 times in the 20 young adult novels. This number does show that even though
there is a focus on traditional models of disability, there is also a focus on educating readers about Deaf culture,
communication and societal issues faced by the deaf.
Societal issues surrounding the deaf and Deaf culture were also addressed in the novels. Issues of
discrimination were found throughout the novels. In Whisper (Keighery, 2011), Stella stated, "This is audism!" she
continues. "It's a perfect example of discrimination from the hearing world. They think we are…" (p. 173). Another
example found in Whisper was when Demi’s friend lost her job. “The new restaurant owner has taken all that away
from her. Not because she's no good at her job, but because she's deaf” (p. 229). In Five Flavors of Dumb (John,
2010), Piper stated about her younger sister who was also deaf, “I'd be there for her, help her, allow her to express
herself in her own way, not demand that she conform to society's bias toward oral communication” (p. 16).
Table 3
Representation of Deaf Culture, Communication Issues, Societal Issues
Book Title
Communication
Issues
Deaf Culture
Societal Issues
Compass
4
1
3
The Dark Days of Hamburger Halpin
30
18
18
Five Flavors of Dumb
20
5
14
Hurt Go Happy
37
6
31
Invisible
1
0
1
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My Haunting Love
2
1
3
Of Sound Mind
7
9
8
The Orange Houses
3
0
1
Portal Through the Pond
7
0
0
Read My Lips
17
1
8
Silence
14
0
7
Silence in Center
9
2
5
Sounds of Silence
13
5
12
Strong Deaf
7
8
3
Sway
3
0
6
Tone Deaf
24
8
4
Until I’m Safe
6
0
2
Waiting For A Sign
7
11
2
Whisper
20
7
30
You’re Welcome, Universe
21
13
4
Totals
252
95
162
Note. For the purpose of this study, communication issues focus on the concepts of ASL, voicing, and lip-reading
and the issues surrounding the use of each. Deaf culture refers to examples that demonstrate the difference between
hearing loss and development of and participation in a unique culture. Societal issues address the issues that deaf
face from hearing society in the way that they are treated.
Summary
Based on the coding analysis, the models of disability that were present most often were those on the
traditional end of the spectrum. The medical and supercrip model were found 682 times throughout the 20 selected
books. These models focus on deafness as a disability and highlight the isolation that deaf adolescents may
experience as well as the need for medical specialists and technology to live and succeed in the hearing world. The
progressive model of cultural pluralism was found only 36 times in the 20 books.
Figure 1. Models of Disability Occurrences
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= 20 Occurrences
= 20 Occurrences
= 20 Occurrences
* Icons courtesy of Pixabay and the Creative Commons
Total Medical Occurrences:
566
Total Supercrip Occurrences:
116
Total Cultural Pluralism
Occurrences: 36
Based strictly on coding, this would mean that relatively little focus was put on deaf characters as
multifaceted characters with deafness being only one aspect of a well-developed character. This disparity in
representation of the more positive progressive model in comparison to the traditional models of disability mean that
adolescents reading these books would find the negative aspects of deafness highlighted more strongly than the
positive aspects. This can lead to a misunderstanding of deaf and Deaf culture by both deaf and hearing adolescents.
These misunderstandings can lead to development of a viewpoint that deaf are broken individuals who need to be
fixed or who are not as capable as hearing individuals. If these representations are the only experience adolescents—
both deaf and hearing—have with deafness and Deaf culture, their overall viewpoint will be negatively skewed.
Themes of communication, culture, and societal issues were present in the books. The different
communication choices of ASL use, voicing, and lip-reading provided an insight into the limitations and benefits of
each communication type. Aspects of Deaf culture were presented and provided examples of the difference between
hearing loss and Deaf culture. Societal issues were also found that provided examples of discrimination against the
deaf and lack of acceptance by the hearing. Overall, coding showed that the authors wanted to show both the
positive and negative aspects of these areas. Even though these were fictional young adult novels, in many cases
non-fictional technology, culture, and education issues were highlighted. These examples may enable both a deaf
and hearing person to learn more about the deaf world and its culture.
Literature as a societal artifact can frame society’s view of social issues and individuals. As young adults
begin to establish their own identity, it is paramount that they have access to accurate information. Deaf teenagers
may not have access to Deaf culture because they live in a hearing household or they attend a hearing school. For
some deaf teenagers, they may have little to no interaction with other deaf people. If what they read is their only
source of information about the many aspects of Deaf culture, how deaf characters are developed and portrayed in
young adult fiction is important. For many hearing teenagers, literature may be their only interaction and source of
knowledge about Deaf culture as well. Well-developed characters who accurately represent Deaf culture and issues
are necessary for both hearing and deaf adolescents. Accurate representation of Deaf culture will enlighten readers
about the unique aspects that make up this culture and why acknowledgement of this culture is important. Young
adult novels must portray deaf characters as well-rounded individuals and move beyond the traditional disability
aspects found in these 20 books. The development of well-rounded, culturally progressive characters will support a
positive portrayal of deaf individuals as contributing members of society who are not disabled, but unique in
language and culture.
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Journal of Curriculum, Teaching, Learning and Leadership in Education, Vol. 4, Iss. 1 [2019], Art. 1
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