Purpose and Use
Purpose
The purpose of this handbook is to provide information and guidance for educational professionals,
school leaders, families, guardians, and students themselves on the subject of dyslexia. According to 105
ILCS 5/2-3.161 the handbook shall include, but is not limited to:
(1) guidelines for teachers and parents or guardians on how to identify signs of dyslexia;
(2) a description of educational strategies that have been shown to improve the academic
performance of pupils with dyslexia; and
(3) a description of resources and services available to pupils with dyslexia, parents or
guardians of pupils.
Furthermore, it is hoped that this handbook will be utilized by schools to design or revise their
professional learning, instructional practices, and processes related to effectively serving students with
dyslexia and other related disorders. In addition, this handbook addresses the social emotional needs of
children and adolescents with dyslexia and those who struggle to learn to read. By educating and
empowering all stakeholders with information and resources, the overall intent is to explain dyslexia,
strengthen service provision, and increase the likelihood of positive outcomes.
Handbook Use and Connection to the Dyslexia Toolkit
This handbook is an informational document. Other than where statutory requirements are clearly
stated, the handbook shares information and resources rather than mandating action. The handbook
contains six chapters which can be read chronologically or can be used individually to access specific
information for various stakeholder groups (e.g. schools, families, etc.). Each chapter is divided by
headings and contains vocabulary which is defined at the end of the handbook in a glossary. Each
chapter is also followed by an Expanded Exploration section which contains integral links to additional
resources/citations that support the content within the chapter and provide more in-depth information
on the topic. Additionally, the chapters conclude with a Bridge to Practice section which seeks to
connect the research discussed throughout the chapters to practical applications in the classroom.
Handbook users may consider utilizing this handbook alone or in conjunction with the Dyslexia Toolkit,
which is an ever-evolving collection of additional resources that can be accessed via the
www.sldsupports.org website. Within the Toolkit, one can find websites, books, videos, and other
resources, such as podcasts, that supplement the Illinois Dyslexia Handbook. School-based teams or
parent groups may use the handbook and the accompanying toolkit to guide discussions about students
with dyslexia and related conditions with the intent of better understanding their challenges and needs
as well as the rights to which they are entitled.
Following is the revised edition of The Dyslexia Handbook (2023) created by the SLD Supports Project on
behalf of ISBE, pursuant to Public Act 100-0617. Eastern Illinois Area of Special Education (EIASE) and
Eastern Illinois University (EIU) Department of Special Education serve as grant partners and are
contracted by ISBE to complete this work which was funded by the federal IDEA Part B grant.
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1: BACKGROUND .................................................................................................................1
Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 1
Current State of Reading in Illinois ........................................................................................................... 1
State Literacy Plan ..................................................................................................................................... 1
Legal Parameters Related to Dyslexia ....................................................................................................... 2
CHAPTER 2: UNDERSTANDING DYSLEXIA ............................................................................................6
What is Dyslexia? ...................................................................................................................................... 6
Prevalence ................................................................................................................................................. 6
Characteristics of Dyslexia ........................................................................................................................ 7
Postsecondary ........................................................................................................................................... 9
Causes of Dyslexia ................................................................................................................................... 10
Effects of Dyslexia ................................................................................................................................... 10
The Impact of Dyslexia ............................................................................................................................ 10
Comorbid Conditions That Can Impact Learning .................................................................................... 11
The Social-Emotional Impact of Dyslexia ................................................................................................ 12
Neurodiversity and Dyslexia ................................................................................................................... 13
Common Misconceptions about Dyslexia ............................................................................................... 13
CHAPTER 3: HOW READING HAPPENS ............................................................................................... 18
How the Brain Learns to Read ................................................................................................................ 18
The Key to Reading ................................................................................................................................. 19
What Brain Imaging Reveals about Students with Dyslexia ................................................................... 19
How Instructional Practices Impact Reading Development ................................................................... 20
Reading Development Informed by Science ........................................................................................... 21
How does this Relate to Dyslexia? .......................................................................................................... 22
CHAPTER 4: SCHOOL-BASED IDENTIFICATION AND SYSTEMS OF SERVICE PROVISION FOR STUDENTS
WITH DYSLEXIA ................................................................................................................................ 24
The Role of RtI and MTSS ........................................................................................................................ 24
Assessment ............................................................................................................................................. 25
Universal Early Literacy Screening .......................................................................................................... 27
Screening for Older Students .................................................................................................................. 29
Diagnostic Literacy Assessments ............................................................................................................ 29
Assessment to Intervention .................................................................................................................... 30
Progress Monitoring ............................................................................................................................... 30
Problem-Solving Model ........................................................................................................................... 31
Tiered Resource Allocation ..................................................................................................................... 32
Interventions to Support Students with the Characteristics of Dyslexia ................................................ 33
Dyslexia and Special Education Eligibility ............................................................................................... 35
CHAPTER 5: FOR CAREGIVERS - SUPPORTING CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS WITH DYSLEXIA ............. 40
Understanding Dyslexia .......................................................................................................................... 40
Awareness of Early Signs......................................................................................................................... 40
Developing a Good Foundation for Reading ........................................................................................... 40
Supporting a Child’s Emotional Needs .................................................................................................... 41
Empowering a Child with Dyslexia .......................................................................................................... 41
Books About Dyslexia .............................................................................................................................. 42
Transition: Moving Beyond High School ................................................................................................. 42
Where to Start ........................................................................................................................................ 43
Talking with a Child’s Teacher about Concerns Related to Dyslexia ...................................................... 43
Screening, Assessment, and Evaluation .................................................................................................. 45
Asking for School-based Support ............................................................................................................ 45
Qualifying for Special Education and/or Related Services ...................................................................... 46
What Parents and Caregivers Can Do at Home to Help ......................................................................... 48
Chapter 6: FOR EDUCATORS, ADMINISTRATORS, and OTHER SCHOOL PERSONNEL SUPPORTING
STUDENTS WITH DYSLEXIA ............................................................................................................... 50
Structured Literacy Approach ................................................................................................................. 51
Interventions and Programs ................................................................................................................... 56
Using the Evidence .................................................................................................................................. 57
Cautions Related to the Evidence ........................................................................................................... 58
Dyslexia Treatments and Other Approaches NOT Supported by Research ............................................ 59
Accommodations .................................................................................................................................... 59
Modifications .......................................................................................................................................... 61
Teaching Strategies to Support Students with Dyslexia ......................................................................... 61
Assistive Technology ............................................................................................................................... 62
Multilingual Learners and Dyslexia ......................................................................................................... 62
Bidialectal Speakers ................................................................................................................................ 66
Students who are Twice Exceptional (2e) ............................................................................................... 70
Older Students with Reading Challenges ................................................................................................ 71
Never Too Late ........................................................................................................................................ 72
Reading Intervention Instructional Practices for Older Students ........................................................... 73
Reader Behavior(s) .................................................................................................................................. 74
The Role of Related Service Professionals .............................................................................................. 75
Addressing Social-Emotional Concerns ................................................................................................... 78
Providing Transition Services for Students with Dyslexia ....................................................................... 78
Looking Forward .............................................................................................................................. 81
Bridge to Practice – Scenarios with Answers ..................................................................................... 82
References ....................................................................................................................................... 86
Glossary........................................................................................................................................... 93
Acknowledgements—Work Group Members and Affiliations
Dr. Dimitris Anastasiou, PhD
Professor – Southern Illinois University
Carbondale, School of Education, Special
Education Program
Anne Brewster, MA, I-CALP
Director – Children’s Dyslexia Center of
Springfield
President – The Reading League Illinois
Elizabeth Campos-Hamilton
Advisory Council for the Education of Students
with Disabilities
Family Resource Center on Disabilities Vice
President
Louise Dechovitz
Parent
Co-Founder – Illinois Early Literacy Coalition
Jessica Handy
Executive Director – Stand for Children Illinois
Dr. Katie Havercroft, PhD
Professor and Chair – Eastern Illinois University
Department of Special Education
SLD Grant Partner
Dr. Melissa Jones-Bromenshenkel, PhD
Handbook Chair
Professor – Eastern Illinois University
Department of Special Education
SLD Grant Partner
Meredith Paige Kroot
Co-founder – CPS Family Dyslexia Collaborative
Amy Magers, SSP, Ed.M.
Regional Specialist – IL SLD Support Project
Hilary Munoz, National Board-Certified
Exceptional Needs Specialist
Learning Behavior Specialist 1
Skinner West Elementary School, CPS
Tom Parton, M.S. CCC-SLP/L
Speech Language Pathologist
Board Member – Everyone Reading Illinois
Dr. Courtney Ratliff, EdD, LPC, NCSP
Co-Founder – President of Science of Reading
Illinois
Jessica Rodriguez, M.Ed.
Handbook Co-Chair
Regional Specialist – IL SLD Support Project
Carolina Schoenbeck
Advisory Council for the Education of Students
with Disabilities
Transition 99 Program Coordinator
Shira Schwartz, M.Ed.
Board Member – Everyone Reading Illinois
SLANT Certified Reading Specialist
Educational Advocate
Parent
Kellyn Sirach, M.Ed.
Handbook Co-Chair
CALT Trainee Affiliate
Reading Content Specialist – IL SLD Support
Project
Everyone Reading Illinois – Board Member,
The Reading League Illinois – Board Member
Kim Tate, Instructional Coach
International Prep Academy, Champaign CUSD 4
Dr. Robin Thoma, PhD
Project Manager – IL SLD Support Project
Special Thanks to: Diane Wendt Uher, Linda Cavanzos, and Claude Goldenberg who were not a part of the Work
Group but made important contributions to the final product.
1
CHAPTER 1: BACKGROUND
Introduction
The vision of the Illinois State Board of Education (ISBE) focuses on the importance of all children and
adolescents being equipped to make meaningful contributions to society and live life to its fullest
potential. Furthermore, ISBE’s mission is to provide all children and adolescents with safe and healthy
learning conditions, great educators, and equitable opportunities by practicing data-informed
stewardship of resources and policy development, all done in partnership with educators, families, and
stakeholders.
Current State of Reading in Illinois
The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) has frequently been called "The Nation's
Report Card." It is the only national assessment of what America's students know and can do in various
subject areas. NAEP is useful because it provides a snapshot of how Illinois students compare to
students in other states. In 2022, 62% of fourth-grade students scored at or above the Basic Level on
this assessment
1
. These results were aligned with longitudinal outcomes in Illinois across the past
twenty years. Moreover, they were not significantly different from outcomes for public schools
nationwide. In terms of Illinois 8
th
graders, 71% scored at or above the Basic Level which indicates a
decrease in performance since 2003 (77%). These results are similar to the results for 8
th
graders across
the nation.
While these data points indicate a concern related to the number of students who are not reading at a
basic level, they are not the only data points to do so.
When looking at data from the Illinois Assessment of
Readiness (IAR) as a metric, one can see that in 2022 on
the most recent administration of the test, only 27.4% of
all third-grade students in the state met or exceeded the
English Language Arts (ELA) standards. This is especially
troubling when considering that the state’s Every Student
Succeeds Act (ESSA) Plan clearly identifies a critical long-term academic achievement goal directly tied to
this outcome: Ninety percent or more of third-grade students are reading at or above grade level. Given
the gap between where our state’s students are currently performing and the benchmark set as a part
of the Illinois ESSA plan, we must examine potential causes, inherent barriers, and effective practices
that will aid us in ensuring all students learn to read and write. This information, coupled with the state’s
literacy plan which is required as a result of SB2243, can serve as a resource for parents, schools, and
others who seek information about effective reading instruction for all children and adolescents,
including those with dyslexia and other reading difficulties.
State Literacy Plan
Required by state law (Public Act 103-0402), the Illinois State Literacy Plan
2
is a comprehensive
document that is designed in order to provide guidance on literacy instruction across the state in an
attempt to help educators improve literacy outcomes for individuals of all ages and backgrounds. The
document outlines a framework for effective evidence-based instruction, education professional
1
NAEP Reading Report for Illinois, 2022
2
Illinois State Literacy Plan, n.d.
2
learning and development, a framework for effective leadership, systems of support, and
implementation considerations, as well as tools and resources for educators. More information
regarding the State Literacy Plan can be found on the ISBE website.
Legal Parameters Related to Dyslexia
Federal Overview and Guidance
Four federal laws have applicability to students identified with dyslexia
3
:
ADA
The Americans with Disabilities Act, first enacted in 1990 and then updated in 2008, prohibits
unjustified discrimination based on disability. It is meant to level the playing field for people
with disabilities, including those who are dyslexic.
IDEA
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, enacted in 1975 under a different name and then
updated as IDEA in 1990 and updated most recently in 2015, is designed to ensure that students
with a disability are provided a “Free Appropriate Public Education” tailored to their individual
needs. One of the law’s pillars is that students with a disability are entitled to an Individualized
Education Program, or IEP, that clearly delineates the services to be provided. The law defines
13 different categories used to identify students with a disability who should be guaranteed a
free and appropriate public education. One of those 13 is the category of “Specific Learning
Disability,” within which dyslexia is cited as an example. Additionally, in 2015, The Office of
Special Education Programs (OSEP) released a memo that provided policy guidance on IDEA/IEP
terms to clarify that there is nothing in the IDEA that would prohibit the use of the terms
dyslexia, dyscalculia, and dysgraphia in IDEA evaluation, eligibility determinations,
or IEP documents
4
.
Under IDEA (and reiterated in Illinois State Law) “Each school district shall be responsible for
actively seeking out and identifying all children from birth through age 21 within the district (and
those parentally-placed private school children for whom the district is responsible under 34
C.F.R. 300.131) who may be eligible for special education and related services…"
5
Thus, since dyslexia may be considered a specific learning disability according to school-based
federal and state disability criteria and since districts are required to seek/identify children and
adolescents who may have disabilities, schools should carefully consider whether or not a child
with dyslexia meets the criteria for special education eligibility and therefore may be entitled to
services.
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973
Section 504 covers qualified students with disabilities who attend schools receiving federal
financial assistance. To be protected under Section 504, a student must be determined to: (1)
have a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities;
or (2) have a record of such an impairment; or (3) be regarded as having such an impairment.
3
Understanding the Law: ADA, IDEA, and Section 504
4
Yudin, 2015, Dear Colleague Letter
5
Child Find Responsibility, 226.100, 2023
3
Section 504 requires that school districts provide FAPE to qualified students in their jurisdictions
who have a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life
activities. Major life activities, as defined in the Section 504 regulations at 34 C.F.R.
104.3(j)(2)(ii), include functions such as caring for oneself, performing manual tasks, walking,
seeing, hearing, speaking, breathing, learning, and working. While this list is not exhaustive,
reading and/or writing could fall under the function of “learning” and, thus, students struggling
in those areas would be protected if their challenges substantially limit major life activities.
Every Student Succeeds Act
Enacted in December of 2015, the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) aims to “provide all
children and adolescents significant opportunity to receive a fair, equitable, and high-quality
education” as well as to “close educational achievement gaps.” The legislation requires that
each state create a plan for its schools to ensure an equitable education for all students,
especially students in poverty, students of color, students who receive special education
services, and students with limited English language proficiency. Schools must account for
academic standards, annual testing, school accountability, goals in academic achievement, plans
for supporting and improving struggling schools, and state and local report cards in their plans.
In this law, ESSA includes provisions that are meant to help students with disabilities, including
students with dyslexia, receive a more impactful education. Included are provisions specifically
designed to improve literacy instruction including requiring evidence-based strategies to
effectively teach reading and writing to students with learning disabilities, including dyslexia,
and resources to identify and intervene when students are struggling in reading.
State Specific Guidance
In July 2014, Public Act 98-0705 was signed into law in the state of Illinois.
6
This law specified that the
“State Board of Education shall adopt rules that
incorporate an international definition of dyslexia” into
the School Code. Effective January 2016, Illinois adopted
the definition of dyslexia provided by the International
Dyslexia Association in 23 Illinois Administrative Code Part
226.125 - Specific Learning Disability: Dyslexia. Illinois
legislators also advanced another bill to ensure greater
awareness about dyslexia. On July 20, 2018, House Bill
4369 was signed into law as Public Act 100-0617, requiring
that ISBE develop, review every four years to update, and
maintain a handbook that is made available on its internet
website to provide guidelines, educational strategies, and
a description of resources and services for pupils, parents/guardians, and teachers on the subject of
dyslexia.
While Illinois was among the first states to introduce dyslexia legislation, in recent years nearly all states
across the country have enacted legislation related to dyslexia. This surge in legislation represents the
widespread sentiment that there must be an appropriate understanding of what dyslexia is and how it
manifests, along with the types of interventions and supports that can be provided to students
exhibiting characteristics indicative of dyslexia.
6
Public Act 98-0750, 2014
4
A new student just transferred to the school where you work and was put into your class. From day one,
you can tell that she is an exceptionally hard worker, but you also notice that she has been struggling to
keep up with the rest of the class, especially in reading. When you check in on her, she tells you that she
has dyslexia. You look in her file and see nothing documented regarding a dyslexia diagnosis, so you call
her parents to try and figure out what is going on. They tell you that she does have a dyslexia diagnosis
and that they have paperwork. The next morning, they bring the paperwork into school and ask if there
is anything that can be done to help their daughter. What is your response?
Click for Answer
• Americans with
Disabilities Act
• Every Student
Succeeds Act
• Illinois Assessment of
Readiness
• Individuals with
Disabilities Education
Act
• Section 504 of the
Rehabilitation Act of
1973
➢ Read: Dyslexia Laws in the USA by the International Dyslexia
Association
➢ Explore: Understanding the Law by The Yale Center for
Dyslexia & Creativity
➢ Learn: State Dyslexia Laws by the Davis Dyslexia Association
International
6
CHAPTER 2: UNDERSTANDING DYSLEXIA
What is Dyslexia?
Dyslexia is defined by Illinois state law as a
“Specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. Dyslexia is characterized by difficulties
with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These
difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often
unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction.
Secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading
experience that can impede growth of vocabulary and background knowledge.”
The aforementioned definition was adopted by the International Dyslexia Association in 2002 and is now
used by many states, including Illinois.
7
Dyslexia is a language-based learning disorder which refers to a cluster of symptoms that result in
people having difficulties with specific aspects of language, particularly phonological processing and/or
orthographic processing in the area of reading. Students with dyslexia often experience difficulties with
other language-based skills such as spelling, writing, and subtle difficulties in word pronunciation.
Dyslexia affects individuals throughout their lives; however, the impact can change at different stages in
a person’s life. Dyslexia is sometimes referred to as a
learning disability because dyslexia can make it very
difficult for a student to succeed academically in the
typical instructional environment, and in its more
severe forms, dyslexia may result in a student qualifying
for extra support services, school accommodations, or
special education services.
8
Prevalence
The most recent data (from 2020-21), indicate that approximately 7.2 million students (15% of all
children and adolescents) in America’s schools receive special education.
9
Among those receiving
services, 33% of them are served under the disability category of Specific Learning Disability (SLD) with
the overwhelming majority experiencing a language-based disability. Nevertheless, many more
people— perhaps as many as 15–20% of the population as a whole—experience some of the symptoms
of dyslexia, including slow or inaccurate reading, poor spelling, poor writing, or mixing up similar words.
Not all these students will qualify for special education, but they are likely to struggle with many aspects
of academic learning and are likely to benefit from systematic, explicit instruction in reading, writing,
and language
10
.
Additionally, dyslexia can have a genetic basis, meaning it can be inherited from parents. Close family
members often share this condition, with multiple siblings potentially being affected. Older relatives
who struggled in school or left early for work or military service might have had undiagnosed dyslexia.
7
Public Act 100-0617, 2018
8
International Dyslexia Association, 2020, Dyslexia Basics
9
National Center for Education Statistics, 2023, Students with Disabilities
10
National Center for Education Statistics, 2023, Students with Disabilities
7
Early intervention is crucial as inadequate support can lead to persistent reading difficulties in
adulthood. Proper instruction, especially during early education, enhances the likelihood of minimizing
long-term challenges for individuals with dyslexia.
Characteristics of Dyslexia
It is important to note that dyslexia occurs in people of all backgrounds and intellectual levels. People
with dyslexia can be very bright, and they are often capable or even gifted in areas such as art, computer
science, design, drama, electronics, math, mechanics, music, physics, sales, or sports. On the other
hand, it is also possible for people with dyslexia to experience significant struggles that require
interventions and support.
There are several characteristics that individuals with dyslexia often exhibit, though they do not all
exhibit these characteristics or struggle in the same
way. Dyslexia exists on a continuum from mild to
severe. The variability can manifest differently for
different students, with some only struggling with
occasional reading challenges, while others may require more intensive support to overcome significant
barriers to skilled reading. Moreover, with dyslexia, there are three primary types of deficits
11
:
● Phonological Core Deficit
○ A deficit in the phonological system in language which is the ability to process and
manipulate phonemes (sounds).
● Naming Speed Deficit
○ A deficit in naming and processing speed which allows us to focus on the automaticity of
retrieval.
● Double Deficit
12
○ Both a deficit in phonological awareness and naming speed.
Furthermore, dyslexia can also look different as children get older. The following list includes common
characteristics across ages and grades:
Preschool
● Delay in learning to talk,
● Difficulty with sensitivity to rhyming,
● Difficulty pronouncing words (e.g., “pusgetti” for “spaghetti,” “mawn lower” for “lawnmower”),
● Poor auditory memory for nursery rhymes and chants,
● Difficulty learning the alphabet,
● Difficulty adding new vocabulary words,
● Inability to recall the correct word (word retrieval),
● Trouble learning and naming letters and numbers and remembering the letters in his/her name,
● Aversion to print (e.g., doesn’t enjoy following along if a book is read aloud), and
● Disinterest in books.
11
Norton, 2020, What Educators Need to Know About Rapid Automatized Naming (RAN)
12
Bowers & Wolf, 1993, Theoretical Links Among Naming Speed, Precise Timing Mechanisms, and
Orthographic Skill in Dyslexia
8
Kindergarten and First Grade
• Difficulty breaking words into smaller parts, or syllables (e.g., “baseball” can be pulled apart into
“base” “ball” or “napkin” can be pulled apart into “nap” “kin”),
• Difficulty identifying and manipulating individual sounds in syllables (e.g., “man” sounded out as
/m/ /ă//n/),
• Difficulty learning letter names,
● Difficulty learning letter sounds,
• Difficulty decoding single words (reading single words in isolation),
• Choppy, inaccurate decoding,
• Difficulty spelling words the way they sound (phonetically) or remembering letter sequences in
very common words seen often in print (e.g., “rob” for “rope”),
● Challenges memorizing high frequency words,
● Odd letter formation, and
● Trouble with recall of dates, names, numbers.
Second Grade and Third Grade
Many of the previously described behaviors remain problematic in addition to the following:
• Difficulty decoding single words,
• Difficulty recalling the correct sounds for letters and letter patterns in reading,
• Difficulty reading fluently (e.g., reading is slow, inaccurate, and/or without expression),
• Difficulty recognizing common sight words (e.g., “to,” “said,” “been”),
• Difficulty connecting speech sounds with appropriate letter or letter combinations and omitting
letters in words for spelling (e.g., “after” spelled “eftr”),
• Difficulty decoding unfamiliar words in sentences using knowledge of phonics,
• Reliance on picture clues, story theme, or guessing at words, and
• Difficulty with written expression.
Fourth Grade through Sixth Grade
Many of the previously described behaviors remain problematic along with the following:
• Difficulty reading aloud (e.g., fear of reading aloud in front of classmates),
• Difficulty reading fluently (e.g., reading is slow, inaccurate, and/or without expression),
• Difficulty decoding unfamiliar words in sentences using knowledge of phonics,
• Avoidance of reading (particularly for pleasure),
• Acquisition of less vocabulary due to reduced independent reading,
• Use of less complicated words in writing that are easier to spell than more appropriate words
(e.g., “big” instead of “enormous”), and
• Reliance on listening rather than reading for comprehension.
9
Middle School and High School
Many of the previously described behaviors remain problematic along with the following:
• Reading may be accurate but slow,
• Difficulty reading fluently (e.g., reading is slow, inaccurate, and/or without expression),
• Poor spelling,
• Difficulty reading out loud, but may have strong comprehension,
• Better comprehension in context than in isolation,
• Guessing when decoding, based on the initial letter of the word (e.g., reading “singing” as
“swimming”),
• Frequent substitution and omission errors,
• Difficulty with the volume of reading and written work,
• Frustration with the amount of time required and energy expended for reading,
• Difficulty decoding unfamiliar words in sentences using knowledge of phonics,
• Inconsistencies when reading and spelling (i.e. reads/spells a word correctly once and then
incorrectly three different ways later in the passage),
• Difficulty with comprehension of text due to vocabulary and contextual clues,
• Difficulty finishing timed tests,
• Difficulty with written assignments,
• Tendency to avoid reading (particularly for pleasure), and
• Difficulty learning a foreign language.
Other subjects may also be significantly impacted such as:
Mathematics
• Inability to read (or correctly read) textbook, notes, worksheet directions, word problems,
• Poor math fact fluency, and
• Reversals or transposing of numbers.
Content Areas
• Difficulty with note taking,
• Struggling to learn from assigned readings,
• Listening comprehension may be much stronger than reading comprehension, and
• Extended written responses may not convey full extent of subject area knowledge.
Postsecondary
Some students will not be identified as having dyslexia prior to entering college. The early years of
reading difficulties can evolve into slow, labored reading fluency. Many students will experience
extreme frustration and fatigue due to the increasing demands of reading as the result of dyslexia. In
making a diagnosis of dyslexia, a student’s reading history, familial/genetic predisposition, and
assessment history are critical. Many of the previously described behaviors may remain problematic
along with the following:
10
● Difficulty pronouncing names of people and places or parts of words,
● Difficulty remembering names of people and places,
● Difficulty with word retrieval,
● Difficulty with spoken vocabulary,
● Difficulty completing the reading demands for multiple course requirements,
● Difficulty with note taking,
● Difficulty with written production, and
● Difficulty remembering sequences (e.g., mathematical and/or scientific formulas).
Overall, research has shown that the following are key predictors of subsequent problems with learning
to read: phonological/phonemic awareness, pseudoword repetition, rapid automatized naming,
expressive/receptive vocabulary, oral listening comprehension, and letter-sound knowledge.
13
Causes of Dyslexia
Dyslexia is a learning disorder that arises from variations in processing related to language and reading.
Developmental dyslexia is caused by congenital and developmental factors, so there may be a
hereditary/genetic component that may predispose some people for dyslexia over others. Research has
yet to explore all possible causes; however, studies have found neurological differences in the brain
which are believed to be at the root of dyslexia. It can also vary in its impact or severity for each family
member.
Effects of Dyslexia
Dyslexia occurs on a continuum from mild to severe. Because of this, it affects people in different ways
and may present barriers to learning, many of which can be overcome with proper interventions. Many
people with dyslexia can become good readers while others may read slowly and inaccurately. While the
most common and persistent issues are with reading and spelling, dyslexia is not simply an issue with
written words. Some people with dyslexia may have difficulty recalling specific names or dates when
pressured by time, remembering a list or sequence of spoken words such as a telephone number,
following a conversation, following instructions, and/or expressing a point of view.
14
The Impact of Dyslexia
Dyslexia primarily impacts reading and spelling but can also affect other areas of learning. Other learning
problems may arise in areas secondary to reading and spelling, including vocabulary, grammar, reading
comprehension, writing, and math. Moreover, dyslexia does not just impact academics. Approximately
40-60% of young people with dyslexia have some type of psychological difficulties including anxiety,
depression, and/or attention difficulties.
15
13
Dyslexia Symptoms in Children and Adults, n.d.
14
Dyslexia Myths and Facts, 2023, The Regents of the University of Michigan
15
Deighton, et al., 2020, Dyslexia and Allied Reading Difficulties
11
Comorbid Conditions That Can Impact Learning
Since dyslexia has been linked to the brain
processing information in an atypical manner, it
is often associated with other conditions or
disorders that occur in a similar way. It is not
uncommon for students with dyslexia to have
comorbid conditions, also known as co-
occurring disorders; studies have shown that as
many as 50% of individuals diagnosed with a
neurodevelopmental disorder are diagnosed with more than one.
16
That being said, it is also entirely
possible to have dyslexia without having any other related disorder(s). Nevertheless, some of the most
common co-occurring conditions/comorbid disorders include:
ADHD
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is the most common type of
neurodevelopmental disorder in children and adolescents. ADHD is when a person exhibits a
pattern of inattention and/or impulsivity. Oftentimes people with ADHD display characteristics
including being unable to sit still, fidgeting, lack of focus, excessive talking or moving, and being
impulsive.
Central Auditory Processing Disorder
Individuals with Central Auditory Processing Disorder (CAPD) have deficits in skills related to
auditory attention, discrimination, analysis, synthesis, association, and organization. Oftentimes,
this disorder manifests in several ways, including difficulty understanding in noisy environments,
trouble hearing in groups, difficulty following directions or needing frequent repetition, seeming
to hear but not understanding, history of ear infections, distractibility, speech and language
problems, poor localization skills, and problems in phonics, reading, spelling, and written
language.
17
Developmental Language Disorder
Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) is a communication disorder that interferes with
learning. The prevalence rate of DLD is approximately 7.5%. These language difficulties are not
explained by other conditions, such as hearing loss or autism, or by extenuating circumstances,
such as lack of exposure to language. DLD can affect a child’s speaking, listening, reading, and
writing. DLD has also been called specific language impairment, language delay, or
developmental dysphasia.
Dyscalculia
Dyscalculia is a learning disorder where people have difficulty in the area of mathematics. If
someone were to have dyscalculia, they may have difficulty counting and reading numbers,
memorizing and applying basic math facts, estimating speed, distance, or time, and counting
money.
16
Habib, 2021, The Neurological Basis of Developmental Dyslexia and Related Disorders
17
Ferre, n.d., A Brief Guide to Central Auditory Processing Disorders
12
Dysgraphia
Dysgraphia refers to unusual difficulty with handwriting, which sometimes affects students'
spelling, but not their word reading, decoding, and spelling unless they have co-
occurring dyslexia.
18
Oftentimes, people with dysgraphia struggle to form letters correctly or
have handwriting that is illegible. They may also find it difficult to copy information.
Dyspraxia
Dyspraxia is a learning disorder where a person has difficulties with motor skills and
coordination. Dyspraxia is shown in both physical movement and forming sounds. People with
dyspraxia may find it difficult to play at recess when trying to run, jump, hop, or kick a ball. They
also may find it difficult using facial muscles to form certain sounds or words.
19
Executive Functioning Impairments
Executive functioning encompasses seven larger skills: adaptable thinking, planning, self-
monitoring, flexibility in tasks, working memory, time management, and organization. If a
person has challenges with executive functioning, they may experience difficulties in one or
more of these areas. It may look like someone losing their papers frequently, struggling to plan
out a larger project, or having a messy desk. There is a direct correlation between executive
functioning and reading comprehension. Executive functions support students to process,
coordinate, and integrate text information at the word, sentence, and passage levels.
20
If a
student struggles with executive functioning, in reading this may present as lacking the ability to
focus on multiple aspects of a text while reading or not understanding that they should
approach a text with the intention of making meaning. Oftentimes, students who are successful
“word callers” or decoders, but lack success with reading comprehension, will have executive
functioning deficits.
The Social-Emotional Impact of Dyslexia
Having dyslexia can result in one experiencing a sense of chronic inadequacy, contributing to anxiety,
anger, poor self-image, and even depression. Individuals with dyslexia often grapple with frustration due
to their persistent struggles despite earnest efforts.
21
This can lead to misinterpretations of carelessness
by caregivers and teachers, causing a cycle of misunderstandings. Anxiety is prevalent, driven by the fear
of failure in tasks involving reading and spelling. Anger, arising from frustration, might be directed at
schools, teachers, or caregivers. Poor self-esteem can stem from repeated failures, while depression
may emerge as low self-esteem and negative thoughts intensify. Identifying these emotional challenges
is crucial, as children and adolescents with dyslexia may require specialized support to prevent long-
term psychological consequences like self-doubt and even suicidal thoughts.
22
Knowing this, it is
imperative that students with dyslexia receive support at school and at home to minimize emotional
struggles that often coincide with a dyslexia diagnosis. In addition, this information should stress the
importance of early identification and intervention; the sooner the problem is acknowledged, the
sooner students can receive the support that they need.
18
Berninger, Richards, & Abbott, 2015, Differential Diagnosis of Dysgraphia, Dyslexia, and OWL
19
National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, 2023, Developmental Language
Disorder
20
Nguyen, et al., 2020, Executive Functions and Components of Oral Reading Fluency
21
Toth, 2020, Children with Dyslexia Show Stronger Emotional Responses
22
Alexander, Flipse, Hirschmann, Farris, & Odegard, 2023, Understanding Dyslexia: A Guide for
Tennessee Families
13
Neurodiversity and Dyslexia
Students with dyslexia play a significant role in the rich tapestry of neurodiversity and are an invaluable
part of our classrooms and society. It is imperative that we recognize and celebrate their worth, never
diminishing their value as individuals solely based on their reading and writing abilities. In doing so, we
contribute to the vibrant spectrum of neurodiversity, embracing
the beautiful diversity that exists in this world. Just like any
other group of individuals, those with dyslexia have their own
unique talents, strengths, and challenges. It is essential to
refrain from generalizing and instead, take the time to
acknowledge and appreciate the distinct qualities and abilities
of each learner. Moreover, limitations in reading and writing
skills do not equate to limitations in overall potential. A myriad
of accomplished individuals with dyslexia have broken barriers and reached the pinnacle of success in
various fields. Consider the illustrious career of Steven Spielberg, whose masterful storytelling on screen
has captured the hearts of audiences worldwide, or Octavia Spencer, whose exceptional acting talents
have earned her accolades and admiration. Henry Winkler is celebrated for his iconic roles in television,
and Richard Branson is a trailblazing entrepreneur. Even in the realm of science, figures such as Maggie
Aderin-Pocock, a distinguished space scientist, have risen above challenges related to dyslexia to make
groundbreaking contributions.
By recognizing and supporting the unique abilities of those with dyslexia, we not only empower these
students, but also enrich our collective understanding of the vast spectrum of human capability. In doing
so, we foster a more inclusive and equitable society where the worth of every individual is celebrated,
regardless of their reading and writing skills.
Common Misconceptions about Dyslexia
Despite the prevalence of dyslexia, there are numerous misconceptions that can hinder understanding
and support for those who have it. It is important to shed light on the true nature of dyslexia while
aiming to promote greater awareness, empathy, and effective strategies to support students with
dyslexia. Below, you will see each misconception in a box with the factual explanation underneath; the
following have been adapted from a collection of resources.
23
24
25
26
27
28
Dyslexia does not exist.
We now have over 30 years of documented scientific evidence and research proving the existence of
dyslexia. It is one of the most common learning disorders to affect children and adolescents.
23
Dyslexia Myths and Facts, 2023, The Regents of the University of Michigan
24
Dyslexia: Myths and Facts, n.d., University of Florida Literacy Institute
25
National Center on Improving Literacy, 2020, Understanding Dyslexia: Myth vs. Facts
26
2.2 Common Myths About Dyslexia, 2020, Colorado Department of Education
27
Decoding Dyslexia, n.d., Dyslexia – Know the Facts
28
Dyslexia Myths, n.d., Gaab Lab
14
Dyslexia affects approximately 1 in 5 people, according to 25+ years of research by the National
Institutes of Health and studies at Yale University. The American Academy of Pediatrics states that
dyslexia is the most common learning disorder, accounting for 80% of all learning disabilities.
Dyslexia and intelligence are NOT connected. Many dyslexic individuals are very bright and creative and
have accomplished amazing things as adults.
Dyslexia is a lifelong issue; yearly monitoring of phonological skill development from first through
twelfth grade shows that the disability persists into adulthood. Although many students with dyslexia
learn to read accurately, they may continue to read slowly and not automatically. And while dyslexia is
considered a lifelong learning disorder, early, intensive, and systematic intervention can help a student
acquire and maintain essential reading skills. Early intervention can also minimize the negative effects
dyslexia can have, such as low self-esteem and poor self-concept as a learner. Conversely, without
intervention, children and adolescents who are poor readers at the end of first grade almost never
acquire average-level reading skills by the end of elementary school.
29
30
31
32
33
Backwards writing and reversals of letters and words are common in the early stages of writing
development among all children. Because many people erroneously believe that letter reversals define
dyslexia, the children who do not make letter reversals, yet display other risk factors of dyslexia, often
go undiagnosed. Quality early screening measures can help identify children in need of intervention and
ensure they receive supports early.
Dyslexia is the most common cause of difficulty with reading, but it is by no means the only cause.
Children and adolescents who struggle understanding spoken language also have problems with reading
comprehension since oral language undergirds learning to read, spell, and write. Dyslexia does not only
cause difficulties in reading, but may also be manifested in challenges in spelling, verbal expression,
speech, writing, and memorization along with difficulties in other subjects such as math. In short, if a
child is dyslexic, they most likely will show other warning signs besides having difficulty with reading.
29
Francis, et al., 1996, Developmental Lag Versus Deficit Models of Reading Disability
30
Juel, 1988, Learning to Read and Write
31
Shaywitz, et al., 1999, Persistence of Dyslexia
32
Torgesen & Burgess, 1998, Consistency of Reading-Related Phonological Processes
33
Gaab, n.d., Dyslexia Myths
15
First graders who are poor readers seldom acquire adequate reading skills by the end of elementary
school without intervention. In fact, 70% of below average readers in 1
st
grade remain below average
readers in 8
th
grade. It is imperative that students who struggle with reading are identified early and
receive proper instruction and intervention, because while students with dyslexia may learn to read
accurately, their dyslexia will likely still hinder their ability to read through their entire life.
People who are dyslexic show an irregular pattern of brain function when reading: underactivity in some
regions, overactivity in others which, according to research, accounts for the difficulty they have in
extracting meaning from the printed word. The findings provide evidence that people with dyslexia are
not lazy, or stupid, but have a functional brain difference that has nothing to do with intelligence. If
students with dyslexia do not receive the right type of intervention and/or classroom accommodations,
they often struggle in school -- despite being bright, motivated, and spending hours on homework
assignments.
Dyslexia is a neurobiological, brain-based disorder that affects individuals of all ages across different
languages.
34
It occurs in all countries in the world who use a written language including both alphabetic
and logographic language systems.
Individuals with dyslexia can become successful readers with the appropriate intervention (i.e.,
systematic, explicit, and research-based). It is important to screen a child early in his/her school career
in order to identify any problems so the appropriate interventions can be put in place. It is also
important to note however, that even with high quality, intensive intervention, students with dyslexia
may continue to struggle, albeit less than they would without intervention.
While dyslexia refers to reading challenges associated with a specific collection of processing deficits in
the areas of phonological processing and/or orthographic processing, dyslexia exists on a continuum.
Students with dyslexia demonstrate different levels of difficulty learning to read.
According to a Dear Colleague Letter from the US Department of Education written on October 23,
2015, the term dyslexia can be used by schools to further describe a child’s learning needs and
characteristics during the process of evaluation, eligibility determination, and in devising Individualized
Education Programs (IEPs). In fact, the letter goes on to discuss that there could be situations where the
34
Youman & Mather, 2012, Dyslexia Laws in the USA
16
child’s parents and the team of qualified professionals responsible for determining whether the child
has a specific learning disability would find it helpful to include information about the specific condition
(e.g., dyslexia, dyscalculia, or dysgraphia) in documenting how that condition relates to the child’s
eligibility determination.
Within a school’s RtI, MTSS, and Special Education framework, schools do have a responsibility for
identifying reading characteristics that indicate a risk of dyslexia. Furthermore, as described in the
Illinois Administrative Code Section 226.125 Part C, each child suspected of having dyslexia or identified
as dyslexic shall be referred for an [a special education] evaluation in accordance with the requirements
of IDEA.
While dyslexia is considered a type of learning disorder, the educational impact of the disorder will
determine eligibility for school-based services. Because the impact of dyslexia ranges from mild to
severe, some students with dyslexia will qualify for special education services, some will need a 504 plan
with appropriate accommodations, and others may only receive interventions through tiered supports.
In short, not all students with dyslexia will require the same levels of support and not all students who
qualify for special education under the category of Specific Learning Disability will be diagnosed with
dyslexia.
Dyslexia is NOT a vision problem; it is a language-based learning disorder which refers to a cluster of
symptoms that result in people having difficulties with specific aspects of language, particularly
phonological processing and/or orthographic processing in the area of reading. There is no evidence that
suggests that visual problems cause or are associated with dyslexia in any way.
17
A coworker comes to you upset because she is stressed about her teenage son. He has been struggling
in school for years with how much time he has to spend on reading assignments, spelling, and reading
out loud, among other things. She always thought that he was just being lazy and didn’t enjoy reading,
but then at the recommendation of the school problem-solving team, she had him evaluated to
determine the need for special education services. The school psychologist did a comprehensive
assessment and data showed that her son exhibits characteristics consistent with dyslexia. She shares
with you that she is afraid of what will happen to her son in the future because she has been told so
many things about dyslexia. When you prompt her for more information, she tells you that she has
heard that only people who have low intelligence have dyslexia, that it is a super rare condition, and
that he will never be successful in life since he can’t read. How can you help her?
Click for Answer
• Attention Deficit
Hyperactivity
Disorder (ADHD)
• Central Auditory
Processing Disorder
• Comorbid Conditions
• Developmental
Language Disorder
(DLD)
• Double Deficit
• Dyscalculia
• Dysgraphia
• Dyslexia
• Dyspraxia
• Executive
Functioning
• Learning Disorder
• Naming Speed
Deficit
• Phonological Core
Deficit
• Specific Learning
Disability (SLD)
➢ Explore: Dyslexia Basics with the International Dyslexia
Association
➢ Read: The Signs of Dyslexia at Different Ages from Yale
University
➢ Watch: Dyslexia 101 from the International Dyslexia Association
18
CHAPTER 3: HOW READING HAPPENS
How the Brain Learns to Read
Learning to read does not occur naturally (like speaking) because the human brain is not “hardwired” to
read.
35
Unlike speaking, reading is a relatively recent invention, as our written system emerged within
the last 5,000 years. This means that learning to read is an unnatural process and it requires specific
instruction and support. However, before delving into instructional methods, it is crucial to grasp how
the brain learns to read.
Reading doesn’t rely on a single brain area but involves various processes connecting into different
regions. Proficient readers use and synchronize several left hemisphere regions, including the
following:
36
● Temporal Lobe: This part deciphers sounds and fosters phonological awareness, dissecting
syllables, phonemes, and words. Specific regions within the temporal lobe include:
○ Parietal-Temporal Region: Breaking down written words into sounds (word analysis).
○ Occipital-Temporal
Region: Strong word
appearances and
meanings (letter-word
recognition,
automaticity &
comprehension), vital
for quick and fluent
reading.
● Angular and Supramarginal
Gyrus: These integrate
multiple brain parts,
connecting letters to form
words for reading aloud.
● Frontal Lobe: Responsible for generating speech sounds, aiding in pronouncing written words. It
manages various speech functions such as reading fluency, understanding and applying
grammar, and producing speech.
Furthermore, our brain undergoes changes as we become better readers. Initially, one part is more
active, helping us understand words. As proficiency grows, another part takes over for quicker word
recognition. Recognizing these brain regions involved in the complex process of reading coupled with
35
Seidenberg, 2020, The Role of Orthographic Mapping in Learning to Read
36
Sedita, 2020a, How the Brain Learns to Read
19
the brain’s adaptability with practice is essential for those teaching reading and especially for those
providing intervention and remediation for students with dyslexia.
The Key to Reading
The key concept in teaching a child to become a skilled reader is orthographic mapping. Orthographic
mapping is the process by which successful readers
become fluent readers.
37
With students with
dyslexia, the goal is for them to be able to
orthographically map words so that they can achieve
automatic word recognition that leads to skilled,
fluent reading. This process involves students using
the part of their brain responsible for processing
oral language to connect the sounds of words
(phonemes) they know to the letters in those words (spellings or graphemes). These connected sounds
and letters, along with their meanings, are then permanently stored in the brain as instantly
recognizable words, often referred to as “sight vocabulary” or “sight words.”
Orthographic mapping is not about memorizing how words look. Research indicates that when we read,
we actually examine each letter in every word. Our brains combine our knowledge of letter-sound
relationships with our awareness of speech sounds to link letter patterns and words together as
meaningful units. These units are stored in long-term memory for automatic retrieval.
Having a substantial number of stored sight words is what enables fluency in reading. Fluency means
being able to read at an appropriate rate with accuracy, allowing the reader to focus on understanding
the text. As Ehri explains, to establish these word connections
and retain them in memory, readers need certain skills.
38
They
must have phonemic awareness, particularly in segmenting
and blending sounds. They also need to know the letter-sound
correspondences of the writing system. Additionally, they
should be able to read unfamiliar words by applying decoding
strategies. Doing so activates orthographic mapping, helping to
remember the words’ spellings, pronunciations, and meanings in memory.
What Brain Imaging Reveals about Students with Dyslexia
Researchers and neuroscientists have found that struggling readers, including students with dyslexia,
exhibit distinct brain activity patterns. In individuals facing reading difficulties, the pathways responsible
for language and cognition are less efficient and less established, making the act of reading more
challenging despite their sincere efforts. Brain imaging studies have revealed that dyslexia is rooted in
neurological differences. Readers with dyslexia display reduced activation in areas where they are
weaker and increased activation in other areas as a compensatory mechanism. Instead of relying on the
left hemisphere of the brain, which is specialized for language processing, individuals with dyslexia who
struggle with reading engage different parts of the right hemisphere, which is less efficient. Moreover,
37
Kilpatrick, 2015, Essentials of Assessing, Preventing, and Overcoming Reading Difficulties
38
Ehri, 2014, Orthographic Mapping in the Acquisition of Sight Word Reading, Spelling Memory, and
Vocabulary Learning
20
this is why understanding how the brain learns to read is imperative in understanding how to teach and
support students with dyslexia.
Because of this, it is important that when children and adolescents first start school, all receive direct,
explicit instruction to build the reading neural network, connecting sounds to letters and meaning so
that they may receive a strong literacy foundation. Because of what we know about the brain, we know
that some will build that network more easily than others. Those who struggle will need additional time
and intensity of instruction in order to become a skilled reader. See Chapter 6 for more information on
instruction.
How Instructional Practices Impact Reading Development
It is crucial to distinguish between students who face reading difficulties due to dyslexia and those who
struggle primarily because of the instructional methods employed. When children are taught to read by
diverting their attention away from letters and relying on alternative cues in the text, guessing words
from context, or memorizing whole words without understanding their structural components, they are
essentially being trained in strategies commonly associated with weak readers. These methods have
been pervasive in reading instruction across Illinois and our country for many years, and students
subjected to them are more likely to encounter reading challenges to varying degrees. Some may even
exhibit signs of dyslexia, although their struggles may not be rooted in this neurological condition.
Importantly, such practices hinder the development of a robust neural network for reading, writing, and
spelling, further emphasizing the need for a shift in instructional practices
39
.
39
Eden, 2016, Dyslexia and the Brain
21
Reading Development Informed by Science
The Simple View of Reading (SVR) is a model that can help educators understand how students learn to
read.
40
Not only is it helpful in understanding reading, but the research support is substantial and holds
true for all students. The SVR says that two things are essential for reading: knowing how to recognize
words and understanding language.
41
Research supports this idea, showing that good reading involves
both word recognition and understanding language. It is important to note that the Simple View of
Reading isn’t simple itself. Both word recognition and language understanding have many parts that
work together, and they rely on each other. It’s not as simple as just teaching one or the other;
however, when students struggle with reading, especially if they have dyslexia, teaching methods based
on The Simple View of Reading are essential.
Figure 1: Adapted from the Simple View of Reading
42
To further understand the reading process, we can examine Scarborough’s Reading Rope.
43
Imagine
reading as a rope with two parts: one part is about recognizing words (through phonological awareness,
decoding, and sight recognition of familiar words) and the other part is about understanding language
(like knowing words and how they fit together). These two parts work together as a student becomes
better at reading through explicit instruction and practice.
At the same time, different aspects of understanding language, like knowing many words, understanding
how language works, and having background knowledge, also help each other. Eventually, these
language skills combine with word recognition skills to make someone a good reader. However,
becoming a good reader does not happen quickly for most. For many students, including those with
dyslexia, learning to read can be a challenge. The Reading Rope helps us see how reading is complex and
the many components that are required in order to become a skilled reader.
40
Hoover & Gough, 1990, The Simple View of Reading
41
Gough & Tunmer,1986, Decoding, Reading, and Reading Disability
42
Hoover & Gough, 1990, The Simple View of Reading
43
Scarborough, 2001, The Reading Rope
22
Figure 2: Scarborough’s Reading Rope
44
How does this Relate to Dyslexia?
In order to fully understand the complexity of dyslexia, it is imperative to understand how the brain
learns to read and the physical brain differences in a student with dyslexia. Through examining the
Reading Rope, we are able to better understand all the
skills necessary to become an effective and efficient
reader. The Reading Rope and the SVR can also help
pinpoint which parts of reading skill acquisition are
causing students the most difficulty. For students with
dyslexia, ensuring skill development across all areas
will require specific instructional components and
considerations which are further discussed in Chapter
6. Due to the specific deficits in the phonological component that hinder reading and spelling abilities in
students with dyslexia, it is crucial to prioritize word recognition instruction as it directly addresses the
underlying difficulties. However, it is equally vital to acknowledge the significance of language
comprehension in overall reading achievement. It is also important to note that if a student has dyslexia
with a coexisting condition such as DLD, language comprehension might be more of a focus in regard to
instruction depending on the severity of word recognition deficit.
44
Scarborough, 2001, The Reading Rope
23
There has been some recent debate at a problem-solving team meeting that you are on regarding a
middle-school student’s reading deficit area. Most of the team think that the student has a deficit with
decoding texts because they spend so much time trying to read individual words that by the time they
finish a passage, they have forgotten what they just read. In addition, when the student reads out loud,
there is an apparent disconnect between what the student says compared to the actual words on the
page. One person on the team thinks that it is just a reading comprehension problem because “the
student should have learned to read by now; they are in middle school.” How can you help the team
work through this disagreement?
Click for Answer
• Angular Gyrus and
Supramarginal Gyrus
• Automaticity
• Comprehension
• Decoding
• Explicit Instruction
• Fluency
• Frontal Lobe
• Grammar
• Grapheme
• Language
Comprehension
• Occipital Temporal
Region
• Orthographic
Mapping
• Parietal-Temporal
Region
• Phoneme
• Phonemic Awareness
• Phonological
Awareness
• Phonological
Component
• Sight Word
• Temporal Lobe
• Word Recognition
➢ Explore: The Reading Rockets Website
➢ Read: Teaching Reading is Rocket Science: What Expert Teachers of
Reading Should Know and Be Able to Do by Louisa Moats
➢ Watch: Dr. Nadine Gaab from Harvard University
24
CHAPTER 4: SCHOOL-BASED IDENTIFICATION AND SYSTEMS OF
SERVICE PROVISION FOR STUDENTS WITH DYSLEXIA
“A multi-tiered system of supports (MTSS) is a proactive and preventative framework that integrates
data and instruction to maximize student achievement and support students' social, emotional, and
behavior needs from a strengths-based perspective.”
45
The Role of RtI and MTSS
Response to Intervention (RtI) and Multi-Tiered Systems of Support (MTSS) are terms often used
interchangeably to describe methods of responding to student needs to reduce both academic and
behavioral difficulties before they become a barrier to student success. Though RtI is a part of MTSS, it
focuses more on individual student progress and is required for SLD eligibility in the state of Illinois; so
long as RtI is being implemented with fidelity, it is encapsulated
under the larger MTSS umbrella. MTSS has a broader scope, with
academics being only one strand. In addition to academics, an
MTSS framework also addresses student behavior, professional
development for teachers, school climate, family and community
involvement, and system needs to ensure that a district is
functioning at a high standard. An MTSS framework empowers
educators to use scheduled assessments to monitor student
progress, and the data from these assessments can be used to inform whole-class instruction as well as
provide insight to where individual students or small groups need more targeted instruction. Ongoing
data review ensures school professionals are able to effectively monitor growth and helps staff to know
if there is a need to select another, more intensive support, without waiting until students fall further
behind.
In practice, an MTSS framework for schools helps to identify students who need support and match
those supports to appropriate interventions that will meet student needs. Thus, it is necessary to embed
early literacy screening and intervention into the MTSS process to detect early signs of reading problems
such as dyslexia. By using a model that includes early literacy screening, research shows a decrease in
the likelihood of students falling behind. The public-school setting is often the only place where
students are assessed to identify risk of learning disorders, such as dyslexia, as well as where evidence-
based reading instruction can take place without cost to families.
Though it was mentioned previously that MTSS is designed to address both academic and behavioral
needs, for the sake of this handbook, the focus will be solely on the academic side of MTSS and its
impact on dyslexia. There are several components that are essential to successfully implementing an
MTSS framework (see figure 3 for a flowchart that depicts the process), including:
1. Universal Screening
2. Data Based Decision Making
3. Tiered Resource Allocation
4. Team Problem Solving
5. Evidence-Based Intervention
45
American Institutes for Research, 2022, Essential Components of MTSS
25
Figure 3: The MTSS Process
Assessment
Assessment plays a vital role in identifying students who may be struggling with reading. It is crucial that
school districts have a comprehensive assessment plan that will empower educators to pinpoint areas of
difficulty so that they can tailor instruction accordingly. Through the use of a comprehensive assessment
plan, educators can uncover potential learning disabilities such as dyslexia, comprehension issues,
and/or gaps in foundational skills that may hinder a student’s overall reading achievement. Early
identification through the use of assessments allows for timely early intervention, specifically designed
instruction (when needed), and the development of targeted support to help struggling readers build
26
the essential literacy skills they need for success in both academic and life pursuits; in fact there is
research that supports the idea that when students are identified and interventions are implemented in
early elementary school, they are significantly more likely to reach an average range in reading ability.
46
Ultimately, assessment serves as a critical step in ensuring that no student is left behind in their journey
to becoming a proficient and confident reader. Various types of assessment and the purposes for which
they are used are described below.
Table 1: Types of Assessments
Type of
Assessment
Description
Purpose
Targeted
Participants
Example(s)
Universal Early
Literacy Screener
Brief, less than 15
minutes, assessing
foundational
literacy skills such
as phonological
awareness, letter-
sound knowledge,
etc.
Identify which
students and
systems are at risk
All students
Acadience,
FastBridge,
AimsWeb
Diagnostic
Literacy
Assessment(s)
Identify a
student’s specific
strengths and
weaknesses in
reading, for
example, phonics
or vocabulary
skills. Diagnostic
tests provide a
detailed profile of
the student’s
needs to guide
intervention.
Determine specific
skill deficits and
what to teach
next
Students who
were indicated as
“at-risk” on the
early literacy
screener
Phonics Survey,
PAST
Progress
Monitoring
To determine if a
student who is
receiving
instruction is
making progress,
informs decisions
about when to
exit a skill and
which skill to
address next
Determine if
instruction/
intervention is
working
Students who are
receiving
intervention
Letter Sound
Fluency, Word
Identification
Fluency, Oral
Reading Fluency
(ORF)
46
Gaab, n.d., Dyslexia Myths
27
Outcome Measure
State-mandated
assessment to tell
if students are
reaching sufficient
levels of
achievement
Determining if
instruction was
sufficient
All students within
a specific grade
level as defined by
state guidance
Illinois
Assessment of
Readiness (IAR)
Universal Early Literacy Screening
The initial phase of the broader multi-tiered support system (MTSS) for addressing and preventing
reading difficulties begins with screening for the risk of dyslexia and other reading challenges. This
process entails assessing academic performance of all students in early literacy and reading skill
development to guide decisions regarding overall instruction and intervention. The primary purpose of
using a screener is not to pinpoint students with dyslexia or disabilities, but rather to identify those at
risk and determine who requires further assessment and support. As Susan Hall explains, “A universal
screener informs you about students who are not meeting the expected standard.”
47
Universal early
literacy screeners encompass brief assessments administered to all students, gauging fundamental
literacy abilities like phonological awareness, letter recognition, and letter-sound knowledge. These
assessments help identify students meeting benchmark levels by evaluating indicators that predict
future reading success.
Once a screener has been administered, an
education team can then use that data to
match students with identified skill deficits,
identify who needs further diagnostic
assessments, and also use the data holistically
to examine proficiency across grade levels,
school buildings, and the district. A screener
is not a diagnostic test and will not result in a
child being diagnosed with dyslexia or any other learning disorder.
48
Ideally, screening results answer
the question, “Who is at risk for reading difficulty?” and “Who needs additional support?”
49
Consider the screening assessment process using a funnel analogy. Initially, all students go through the
school’s universal early literacy screener, which represents the wider opening of the funnel. The primary
purpose of the assessment is to identify students who are not performing at benchmark levels and to
gain initial insights into which specific areas require further examination, such as phonological
awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, or comprehension. For those students who do not meet the
benchmark as they progress through the initial screening, the subsequent step involves pinpointing the
exact deficit areas and determining an appropriate treatment plan. In order to do this effectively,
educators need access to robust diagnostic assessment data that will help identify precisely where the
student began encountering difficulties and which specific skill represents the lowest point in their
progression from simpler to more complex skills.
50
If a universal screener can “catch” students at risk of
47
Hall, 2018, 10 Successful Factors for Literacy Intervention
48
Albers & Hall, 2023, Best Practices for Universal Screening in Schools
49
Brehmer, et al., 2022, Michigan Dyslexia Handbook: A Guide to Accelerating Learner Outcomes in
Literacy
50
Hall, 2018, 10 Successful Factors for Literacy Intervention
28
dyslexia and other reading difficulties early in their school careers, early literacy intervention can be
provided to help mediate the effects that dyslexia may have on a student otherwise.
Many districts already use universal screeners that follow recommendations for assessing for dyslexia
and other learning difficulties; refer to table 2 for a list of skills recommended for inclusion in early
literacy screening.
51
Not only have these areas been identified through research as holding validity as a
predictor for future reading achievement, they are also able to be assessed briefly, and are areas for
which interventions can be prescribed based on the results. When an appropriate universal screener is
selected, there is no need to add an additional screener that is specific to dyslexia. However, if a
screener does not measure these specified skills, schools will need to utilize different or additional tools
to find out who is at risk for reading difficulties and dyslexia.
Table 2: Screening Measures by Grade Level
Grades
Screening Measures
Pre-Kindergarten
• Oral language and vocabulary
• Phonological awareness
• Alphabet knowledge
Kindergarten
• Oral language and vocabulary
• Letter knowledge
• Phonological (phonemic) awareness
• Letter-sound associations
• Phonological processing task (Rapid Automized Naming
assessment measure)
• Spelling (end of kindergarten)
First Grade
• Phonemic awareness segmentation task
• Phonological processing task (Rapid Automized Naming
assessment measure)
• Non-word reading fluency
• Word-reading fluency
• Oral reading fluency
• Spelling
Second Grade
• Word-reading tasks
• Oral reading fluency
• Spelling
Third Grade
• Oral reading fluency
• Spelling
It is important to note that though students may be flagged by an early literacy screener as meeting the
criteria for “at-risk for dyslexia” or “at-risk for a learning disability”, this does not mean they will qualify
for special education services. In fact, early literacy screening results alone do not provide enough
information that the team should automatically “suspect” dyslexia. The screener is simply the first step
in identifying students who need additional reading intervention as well as those who need more in-
depth skill evaluation in a broader MTSS framework.
51
Massachusetts Dyslexia Guidelines, 2021, Massachusetts Department of Elementary and Secondary
Education
29
There are several screeners available for district use that may help in identifying students who are at risk
of poor academic outcomes, including those who may potentially have dyslexia. A list of popular
screeners can be found at The National Center for Intensive Intervention.
52
Furthermore, additional
screeners, as well as other resources, can be found in the Dyslexia Toolkit.
Screening for Older Students
Identifying reading difficulties among older students
(those in 4th grade and beyond) requires different
approaches than those used in early elementary years. It
is crucial for districts and schools to establish a
comprehensive assessment plan aimed at identifying
individuals who struggle with reading or may exhibit signs
of dyslexia, especially if they were not identified during
their earlier years.
Some districts employ benchmark assessments such as
FastBridge Reading or NWEA MAP, and if available, it is advisable to leverage the data from these
assessments to determine the need for further assessment (refer to Chapter 6 for visual
representation). In cases where benchmark assessments are not in place, a practical starting point is to
administer an Oral Reading Fluency (ORF) assessment, including a comprehension component, two to
three times a year. This approach helps educational teams identify students reading below their grade
level and ascertain whether fluency issues are contributing to their reading comprehension challenges.
53
Oral Reading Fluency assessments serve as an initial step in identifying students who require additional
diagnostic assessments to determine appropriate intervention.
Diagnostic Literacy Assessments
Once an early literacy universal screener is complete, that data will give the education team information
regarding who is at risk and who needs further diagnostic assessments to pinpoint specific skill deficits.
Diagnostic literacy assessments are utilized to provide a snapshot of one specific skill area such as
phonological awareness. “The diagnostic tells you why a student isn’t reading at benchmark and what to
do about it.”
54
Diagnostic assessments are only given to some students. Teams can identify students needing further
assessments based on the universal literacy
screener. These assessments, for the most
part, are not timed; however, they are fairly
quick to administer as they are set up from
simple to complex when it comes to skill
progression. When a student cannot pass a
skill, “that becomes the starting point for
intervention instruction.”
55
Moreover, it is
essential for the intervention provider to
match the skill deficit to an evidence-based
52
National Center on Intensive Intervention, 2021, Academic Screening Tools Chart
53
Petscher, et al., 2020, How the Science of Reading Informs 21
st
-Century Education
54
Hall, 2018, 10 Successful Factors for Literacy Intervention
55
Hall, 2018, 10 Successful Factors for Literacy Intervention
30
intervention. For example, if a student has a deficit in word recognition, a provider will NOT begin with a
comprehension intervention. More effectively, if a student had a word recognition deficit, a provider
would begin with an intervention in word recognition that is systematic, explicit, and cumulative. Refer
to the Dyslexia Toolkit for intervention ideas.
Assessment to Intervention
Once an early literacy screener and diagnostic assessments have taken place, the data collected from
these assessments should be used to form specific skill intervention groups. There are several common
grouping practices that are ineffective and will not
provide the best outcome for students in regard to
literacy skill development. Teams should NOT simply
group by benchmark score/level or quadrants.
These common grouping practices will lead to a
mixture of needs in the same group, lack of clarity
about what skills have been mastered and which are
deficient, unclear goals, and overall lack of overall direction for the teacher or interventionist providing
the instruction.
56
Instead, teams should form intervention groups based on skill deficit. In this way, the
teacher or interventionist has a clear picture of what to teach and how to measure progress. For more
information on skills to be focused on during intervention, see Chapter 6.
Progress Monitoring
Students receiving intervention should be progress monitored frequently to ensure academic progress.
Progress monitoring allows the team to frequently and continuously evaluate student learning,
monitoring the effectiveness of instruction in intervention, and make instructional changes to improve
student performance.
57
Additionally, progress monitoring is a key component in the RTI/MTSS process.
The data that is collected from progress monitoring is an objective way for the team to determine if
students are responding to the intervention provided and next steps. Moreover, progress monitoring is
a critical component in data-based individualization (DBI) which is a research-based process that guides
educators on making instructional decisions for students who struggle
58
.
Progress monitoring is a crucial tool that enables immediate data collection and formative feedback for
interventionists and teachers that may be used in the case of a special education evaluation. Progress
monitoring data eliminates the need to wait for larger scale evaluation or assessment results. Typically,
7-10 data points are gathered, offering educators enough information to spot trends and make informed
decisions about a student’s response to intervention. If a student is not responding adequately,
adjustments in the intervention’s intensity or type can be promptly implemented, see The National
Center on Intensive Intervention’s (NCII) Taxonomy of Intervention Intensity.
59
Continual data
monitoring is essential during this process to gauge a student’s response effectively. In cases of
inadequate response, the team can convene and employ Data Based Individualization (DBI) to enhance
the intervention’s effectiveness, potentially altering its frequency, duration, or intensity as needed. For
more information on analyzing progress monitoring to help inform instruction, see The Iris Center
Progress Monitoring Module and the NCII Reading Progress Monitoring Module.
56
Hall, 2018, 10 Successful Factors for Literacy Intervention
57
IRIS Center, n.d., Progress Monitoring
58
National Center on Intensive Intervention, 2013, Data-Based Individualization
59
Fuchs, Fuchs, & Malone, 2017, The Taxonomy of Intervention Intensity
31
Problem-Solving Model
The MTSS framework is built on a foundation of problem solving. Educators ask questions about
increasing literacy, try interventions, and check the results. With numerous evidence-based practices,
reasons for achievement gaps, and individual needs, a large number of variables exist when seeking to
align interventions and selecting instructional strategies. Questions and concerns can be overwhelming
for a team charged with decision making, so remembering that the problem-solving process is fluid and
ongoing is essential (see Figure 4).
60
Paired with data-based decision making, this model of problem solving can continually ground educators
in the essential questions that guide improved student learning outcomes; a list of these essential
questions can be found in the dyslexia toolkit.
Figure 4: Steps of Problem Solving
Individual Problem Solving
Most steps within an MTSS model are in place to support services for the majority of students. Just like
tiered intervention aims to support the majority of students with needs, the process reflects decision
making for groups of students, rather than individuals, for most steps of the process. Individual problem
solving typically only occurs following the implementation of at least two implementation cycles of
evidence-based interventions. For students who demonstrate reading skill gaps when compared to
peers, this ensures instruction can occur immediately following assessment data indicating a need.
Individual problem solving should come after targeted interventions have been put into place; not only
will the student already be receiving instruction in the skill area(s) identified, the team will have more
information on what works (or does not work) for a student. When analyzing progress monitoring data
60
Gibbons & Coulter, 2015, Making Response to Intervention Stick
32
from a tiered literacy intervention and observing insufficient progress towards the goal, a team may
engage in individual problem solving for a child.
61
Compared to team meetings that focus on a multitude of students, there are a few changes that
characterize individual problem-solving team meetings.
1. Individual student data is included to reflect the whole child. Data regarding all academics,
behavior, social-emotional functioning, and independence in age-appropriate skills should be
available for all team members to review.
2. The team members should include professionals from multiple disciplines across the school
setting, such as the classroom teacher, interventionists, student service personnel (social
worker, school psychologists, school counselors) and an administrator. A school’s problem-
solving team must include families as part of the IEP team, but also throughout the RtI/MTSS
problem-solving process.
62
Per ISBE’s Form 34-54, Instructions For Individualized Education
Program Forms indicate teams must:
● Provide documentation of the parent/guardian or student involvement as part of the
problem/decision-making team;
● The parent or guardian of a child shall be provided with written notice of the school
district's use of scientific, research-based intervention or a multi-tiered system of support
for the child and may be part of the collaborative team approach at the discretion of the
school district; and
● The parent or guardian shall be provided with all data collected and reviewed by the
school district with regard to the child in the scientific, research-based intervention or
multi-tiered system of support process.
3. A problem-solving framework should be used, with clearly documented discrepancy statements
based in data. Goals specific to the discrepancy should be determined, and dates for follow-up
meetings should be scheduled following literacy intervention implementation.
The ultimate goal of problem solving, whether it be for
a group of students, or an individual student, is to
ensure that every child is receiving literacy
interventions that are appropriate and beneficial to
their educational progress. Not all students will receive
the same intervention with the same level of intensity
or even for the same amount of time; students should
receive what they need in order to be successful,
ultimately ensuring that they become skilled readers.
Tiered Resource Allocation
Another key component of MTSS is the multi-tiered service delivery model. All students need
foundational reading skills, reading fluency, and language comprehension development in order to be
successful in the classroom and beyond. Additionally, within the MTSS model, all students should have
access to high-quality, evidence-based literacy instruction – regardless of the tier. The universal tier (tier
1) represents the initial intervention for all students and presents the prime opportunity to make the
61
National Center on Intensive Intervention, n.d., What is Data Based Individualization
62
Public Act 101-0515, 2019
33
most significant difference in student achievement. It involves establishing a durable and robust
educational groundwork that can serve as the basis for providing enriching assistance to those who
require it; however, when student needs exceed what is provided in the classroom during tier 1
instruction, individualized, evidence-based interventions need to be implemented. The creation and
organization of students into tiered levels of support is done so that all students can be provided with
instruction that meets their level and type of need.
The classic view of tiered interventions is that the supports become additive in nature. Tiered instruction
indicates a progression of intensity that is appropriate for the needs of the individual student. With the
exception of higher-risk schools requiring more supports for all students, many districts can consider the
following as typical definitions for the three tiers:
Table 3: Tiers of Instruction
Tier
Description
Provider
Audience
Tier 1: Core Instruction
Evidence-based, grade-
level instruction in a
general education
setting
Classroom Teacher
All students
Tier 2: Targeted
Interventions
In addition to Tier 1
core instruction –
Different or additional
support based on
literacy needs
Teacher or Reading
Interventionist
Small (8-10) groups of
students
Tier 3: Intensive
Individualized
Intervention
In addition to Tier 1
core instruction –
Increased intensity and
explicitness with more
instructional time and
more focus on teaching
specific skills
Reading
Interventionist,
Dyslexia Therapist, or
Specialist
Small (no more than 4)
groups of students
Because individuals with dyslexia represent such a diverse population, students who have been
identified as having characteristics of the disorder might fall into any of the three tiers of instruction.
Regardless of how much targeted intervention a student needs, it is essential to ensure that the
instruction is explicit, comprehensive, and differentiated to ensure that the needs of all students are
being addressed.
63
Interventions to Support Students with the Characteristics of Dyslexia
As mentioned previously, screening and assessment data in a school setting does not diagnose a student
who has dyslexia; however, there are many interventions that can be implemented in a tiered system
through MTSS that may prove to be beneficial to students who are exhibiting characteristics of dyslexia.
63
Fletcher, 2023, Systems, Assessment, and Reading Difficulties
34
Intervention can be implemented in either tier 2 or tier 3 settings, tailored to the required level of
intensity, and can be effective in addressing students’ specific needs.
Elementary Reading Instruction Across Tiers
Effective elementary reading instruction across tiers is a crucial foundation for successful reading. At the
universal tier (Tier 1), educators must utilize evidence-based practices to provide all students with a
strong foundation in phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension skills (see
figure 5 below). Differentiated instruction and scaffolding ensure that each child receives targeted
support based on their unique needs. Moving into the targeted and intensive tiers (Tiers 2 and 3),
intervention strategies become more personalized, addressing specific challenges that may impede a
student’s progress. Additionally, a collaborative approach involving teachers, parents, and specialists
enhances the effectiveness of the instruction, ensuring that every child has the opportunity to become a
proficient reader.
Figure 5: Foundational Reading Skills by Grade Level
Component
K
1
st
2
nd
3
rd
4
th
5
th
and
beyond
Phonemic
Awareness
Blend & Segment
Phoneme Analysis: Addition, Deletion, & Substitution; Spelling
Dictation
Phonics
Sounds/Basic
Phonics
Advanced Phonics & Multisyllabic
Multisyllabic & Word
Study
Fluency
Sounds and
Words
Advanced Phonics & Multisyllabic
Connected Text
Vocabulary
Speaking and Listening
Listening, Reading, &
Writing
Reading & Writing
Comprehensi
on
Speaking and Listening
Listening, Reading, &
Writing
Reading & Writing
Effective Elementary Intervention
For struggling readers, such as students with dyslexia, it is important to know that a structured literacy
approach to reading instruction in all tiers of instruction is imperative to learn to read, especially in early
elementary years. In fact, research shows that interventions implemented after 2nd grade become 50%
less effective.
64
Popular reading approaches such as Guided Reading and Balanced Literacy are not
effective for these students.
65
Moreover, depending on the severity of a child’s dyslexia, it is possible
that the student may need an intervention outside of tier 1 instruction. The instructional focus should
include: phonemic awareness, sound-symbol association, syllable structure, morphology, syntax, and
64
Fletcher, 2023, Systems, Assessment, and Reading Difficulties
65
International Dyslexia Association, 2016, Effective Reading Instruction
35
semantics. For instance, if a student in 3rd grade is still struggling with sounds/basic phonics, it will be
apparent that the student will need intervention (see figure 5). See Chapter 6 for more information.
Secondary Reading Instruction Across Tiers
Effective secondary reading instruction across tiers is designed to meet the diverse needs of students as
they progress through school. In the universal tier (Tier 1), educators continue to reinforce and expand
upon vocabulary and comprehension within every content-area class. In fact, content-area instruction
has been found effective in improving content knowledge outcomes among secondary students.
66
During the transition to more focused instruction within Tiers 2 and 3 intervention, the methods
become increasingly customized, tackling precise deficits that might hinder a student’s overall reading
achievement. Furthermore, it is crucial to adopt a collaborative approach that includes teachers from all
subject areas, special instructors like those in art or music, parents, and specialists. This collaboration is
essential to optimize the effectiveness of instruction, ensuring that each student is provided with the
opportunity to become a proficient reader.
Effective Secondary Intervention
In a secondary educational setting, it is essential to possess knowledge about the previous interventions
a student has undergone, if any at all. If a student in a secondary environment still requires support in
word recognition and fluency, it becomes critical that the intervention incorporates explicit, systematic,
and diagnostic instruction in word recognition. This instruction should encompass a focus on various
aspects, including phonological awareness, sound-symbol association, syllable structure, morphology,
syntax, and semantics. Importantly, the intervention(s) should be conducted outside of the content area
classroom. It is worth emphasizing that it is never too late for a student to acquire foundational literacy
skills, ultimately enabling them to become proficient readers. For more information, refer to Chapter 6.
Figure 6: Tiers of Reading Instruction for Secondary Settings
67
Dyslexia and Special Education Eligibility
Not all students who are diagnosed with dyslexia will qualify for special education services; however, it
is possible that after employing the process to determine how a child responds to scientific, research-
66
Swanson, et. al., 2015, Improving Reading Comprehension and Social Studies Knowledge
67
Capin, et. al., 2022, Evidence-Based Reading Instruction for Secondary Students
36
based interventions, the problem-solving team (which includes a student’s family) may request an
evaluation to see whether or not a student qualifies for an Individualized Education Program due to a
lack of progress in reading. When they do qualify, students with dyslexia most often meet criteria for
special education under the label of Specific Learning Disability for basic reading, reading fluency, and/or
reading comprehension.
In addition, a referral for special education evaluation can be made at any time by any member of the
student’s problem-solving team (including parents/guardians). It should be noted that a referral is not a
means to bypass RtI in order to receive services. Even though following the response-to-intervention
process is not a valid reason to delay an evaluation, the use of RtI for eligibility in Illinois is required for
SLD eligibility (23 IAC 226.130). Even if a student has a current diagnosis of dyslexia or another learning
disorder, they are not automatically entitled to special education services, as the criteria for eligibility
differs between a medical/clinical diagnosis and an educational one in Illinois public schools; however,
according to administrative code, any child suspected of having dyslexia or those with an outside
diagnosis of dyslexia must be evaluated for special education eligibility.
Following a referral for special education, the IEP team will consider the need for an evaluation, which is
a lengthier and more complex process used to determine whether a child qualifies for special education,
based on existing information known about the child in comparison to peers. If an evaluation is
warranted, a multidisciplinary team will review what areas currently impact the student’s education,
share what additional information is needed to make the eligibility determination, and request consent
from the parent/guardian to collect that information. A meeting, often called a Review of Existing
Information or Domain(s) meeting, will be held including all IEP team members to discuss which
assessments are related to areas requiring intervention.
Once this Review of Existing Information meeting is held, and consent obtained, intervention and
progress monitoring will continue. The school members of the IEP team will collect the additional
required information within 60 school days from the date of consent, by which time the Special
Education Team will determine eligibility. (Note: many districts have different names and acronyms for
these processes and meetings. Please read more about this process in Chapter 6.)
Eligibility Determination
Special education eligibility includes criteria to help guide decision making, ensuring that these
important decisions are made with consistency across schools statewide. Criteria includes both
descriptions of what a student’s information must indicate to qualify, as well as factors that would
exclude a student from meeting criteria for special education under a specific category such as Specific
Learning Disability.
Eligibility Determination, II. Specific Learning Disability
The eligibility determination must be made by the IEP team. Based upon an analysis of
information from a variety of sources, (e.g., academic achievement tests, functional
performance, parent input, teacher recommendations, observation, physical condition, social or
cultural background, and adaptive behavior) the IEP team will determine if:
• The student is progressing at a significantly slower rate than is expected in any
area(s) of concern;
37
• The student’s performance is significantly below performance of peers or expected
standards in any area(s) of concern; and
• The student’s needs in any area(s) of concern are significantly different from the needs
of typical peers and of an intensity that exceeds general education resources.
After completing the process that determines how a child responds to scientific, research-based
interventions, the IEP team MAY also consider if a severe discrepancy exists between
achievement and ability that is not correctable without special education and related services.
Based upon the determinations noted above, the IEP team would conclude whether or not the
child has a Specific Learning Disability (SLD) that adversely affects educational performance and
requires special education.
IEP teams undertaking an evaluation for special education consider a wide range of assessments
addressing multiple areas of a student’s proficiency. Academic achievement is often the most heavily
weighted area for students who have dyslexia; however, this testing should be considered in
combination with all other data from other relevant areas. Further, an IEP team considering one or more
of the other thirteen areas of eligibility under IDEA may consider different assessments related to the
suspected area of eligibility.
During the time an evaluation is being completed, IEP teams will continue to progress monitor to assess
the effectiveness of interventions being implemented. In addition, the consent obtained allows team
members to collect more in-depth information about a child’s needs. School psychologists and other
educational professionals can select broad standardized achievement tests to assess several areas of
academics, and/or in-depth assessments that target specific reading and writing skills. A balance of
these assessments helps to 1) identify how the student achieves compared to a sample of their peers’
achievement, and 2) identify specific skill gaps and patterns in which intervention may be needed.
Within a public-school setting, these subject-specific tests are considered diagnostic assessments, not
because they provide a diagnosis, but because they can pinpoint specific areas of skill deficit. For a
student with dyslexia, one can expect the same areas assessed briefly with a screener to be included,
but with more time and attention in order to see which basic reading, reading fluency, reading
comprehension, written expression and/or spelling skills are impacted.
As part of the evaluation process, the team will also collect information across many areas of a child’s
development. Educators know that each student is more than a diagnosis, test score, or grades, and the
evaluation helps to reflect all factors that interact to affect a student’s overall functioning at school. In
addition to the criteria listed above, the following exclusionary criteria help the IEP team to recognize
what other influences may be impacting a child’s school performance:
a) a visual, hearing, or motor disability; b) intellectual disability; c) emotional disability; d)
cultural factors; or e) environmental or economic disadvantage. Attach evidence to support the
team’s decision. If the information is already addressed in another area, the team may indicate
such. If any box is checked “Yes,” the student cannot have a primary eligibility of specific
learning disability and the team must complete the Eligibility Determination section accordingly.
68
68
Illinois State Board of Education, 2021b, Instructions for Individualized Education Program Forms
38
Additional factors that may also affect eligibility for SLD include lack of appropriate instruction or limited
English proficiency. The IEP team must consider if the main reason for a significant discrepancy in
reading achievement is determined to be a result of lack of appropriate instruction which may include a
student’s lack of attendance. Students who do not attend school regularly do not receive the tier 1
instruction that is essential for any student to succeed. Districts may weigh the exposure students have
to core and intensive interventions in addition to judgments regarding the integrity of the
interventions. In addition, the IEP team must also consider limited English proficiency. Limited English
proficiency in itself is not enough to qualify a student under SLD. It is essential to consider the whole
student before determining eligibility for SLD.
It is clear here that evidence-based practices as part of an MTSS model are essential for eligibility. In
order to properly identify and serve students, districts must
provide the curriculum and instructional strategies that are the
most impactful. It is often the case that best practices for
students with dyslexia and other reading challenges will benefit
all learners.
39
During the first few weeks of school, you give all of the students in your 1st grade classroom a universal
screener to determine if there are any students who have gaps in achievement. When looking at the
results, you notice that the majority of students are exactly where you expect them to be, but that there
are 3 students who are performing below the benchmark in one or more areas. You dig further into the
results and notice that one student in particular is demonstrating deficits in non-word reading fluency,
phonological processing, and spelling. Can you logically conclude that this student has dyslexia?
Click for Answer
• Case Study
Evaluation
• Data-Based Decision
Making
• Diagnostic Literacy
Assessment
• Domain
• Individualized
Education Program
(IEP)
• Morphology
• Multi-Tier Systems of
Support (MTSS)
• Oral Reading Fluency
Assessment (ORF)
• Outcome Measure
• Phonemic Awareness
• Progress Monitoring
• Response to
Intervention (RtI)
• Semantics
• Specific Learning
Disability (SLD)
• Syllable Structure
• Syntax
• Tier 1
• Tier 2
• Tier 3
• Universal Early
Literacy Screener
➢ Read: Dyslexia Testing and Evaluation with the International
Dyslexia Association
➢ Explore: Progress Monitoring with The Iris Center
➢ Watch: Dr. Matt Burns discuss what to do when intervention
isn’t working with PATTAN
40
CHAPTER 5: FOR CAREGIVERS - SUPPORTING CHILDREN AND
ADOLESCENTS WITH DYSLEXIA
Understanding Dyslexia
A child will likely look to the parent for information about dyslexia, and it is important that the parents
have answers. While a parent does not need to know everything, it is vital to be able to explain what the
child may experience or different things that may be helpful to them when they are struggling.
Awareness of Early Signs
Intervening early can have a significant impact on student growth and development. If delays in
development are noticed, a parent or caregiver should voice their concerns so that the child can get the
attention they need, and interventions can be implemented. Signs to be aware of may include the
following
69
:
● Family medical history as dyslexia often runs in families,
● Evidence that your child is not speaking or naming letters,
● Problems rhyming words or learning simple nursery rhymes,
● Being unable to recognize the letters in their name, and
● Frequent “baby talk” and the use of nonsense words in speaking.
Refer to Chapter 2 for a more detailed list of common characteristics of dyslexia by age/grade.
Developing a Good Foundation for Reading
Children absorb information like sponges, so the earlier parents establish a positive relationship around
reading, the better off a child will be. Below are some strategies that can be used at home to help a child
develop a good foundation for reading
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:
● Talk to and with your child often to help develop strong oral language skills which are
the foundation for reading and writing,
● Point out print and talk about its purpose,
● Read high interest books with your child every single day,
● When reading with your child, exaggerate sounds in words and have your child repeat
them with you,
● Practice saying full sentences with your child,
● Emphasize sounds in words,
● Play rhyming games to help your child find patterns in words,
● Use a diverse vocabulary to help your child learn new words, and
● Work with your child to stretch apart and connect sounds to sound out words.
It is important to keep in mind that even if a parent or caregiver does establish a print-rich environment
and they read to a child often, dyslexia can still exist and require intervention.
69
The Yale Center for Dyslexia and Creativity, 2022, Signs of Dyslexia
70
Shaywitz, 2022, Developing a Foundation for Reading
41
Table 4: Sample Reading Conversation
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Parent
How does this word start?
Child
/mmm/
Parent
What is the next sound?
Child
/aaa/
Parent
What sound comes next?
Child
/nnn/
Parent
What happens when you put them together?
Child
/mmmaaannn/
Parent
What is the word?
Child
Man!
Supporting a Child’s Emotional Needs
It is not uncommon for children and adolescents who are diagnosed with dyslexia to also struggle with
mental health challenges. Children and adolescents with dyslexia are at higher risk of depression,
anxiety, fear of failure, low self-esteem, feelings of being “dumb”, or behavior challenges. It is essential
to support a child through these struggles. There are several ways parents can help:
● Learn about dyslexia so that you are prepared to talk to your child about it.
● Partner with your child’s school to learn how they are supporting learning.
● Focus on your child’s strengths.
● Celebrate even the smallest success.
● Be an advocate for your child.
● Help your child understand that they are capable of greatness.
● Provide your child with emotional support services, if needed.
Empowering a Child with Dyslexia
A child’s dyslexia is not going to go away, therefore it is important to develop a toolbox of ways to
empower the child. Parents and teachers should teach children and adolescents with dyslexia the tools
to advocate for themselves and to identify strategies that either work or do not work for them.
Additionally, the child should be allowed space for struggle and success; without both, they are not
going to obtain the problem-solving strategies that they will need later in life. Helping a child understand
their needs and find their own voice early on will help them take control of their challenges and manage
more effectively well into their adult years.
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National Center for Improving Literacy, 2019
42
Books About Dyslexia
Picture Books
How Your Brain Learns to Read by Denise Eide
Xtraordinary People Made by Dyslexia by Kate Griggs
A Walk in the Words by Hudson Talbott
Aaron Slater, Illustrator by Andrea Beaty
Just Ask by Sonya Sotomayor
It’s Called Dyslexia by Jennifer Moore-Mallionois
The Brain Building Book by Liz Angoff
Dr. Dyslexia Dude by Dr. Shawn Robinson
Middle Grade Books
Fish in a Tree by Lynda Mullaly Hunt
Close to Famous by Joan Bauer
Eleven by Patricia Reilly Giff
Hank Zipper Series by Henry Winkler & Lin Oliver
My Name is Brain Brian by Jeanne Betancourt
Percy Jackson Series by Rick Riordon
Books for Parents
The Dyslexic Advantage: Unlocking the Hidden Potential of the Dyslexic Brain by Eide & Eide
Dyslexia Empowerment Plan by Ben Foss
Overcoming Dyslexia by Sally Shaywitz
Smart Kids with Learning Difficulties by Weinfield, Barnes-Robinson, Jeweler, & Roffman
Transition: Moving Beyond High School
After leaving high school, the services that may have been provided to students with dyslexia will likely
end. Students who had either an IEP or a school-based 504 plan will no longer have those plans to
support them as they move into the next stage of life. As adults, they will be protected from
discrimination under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act and Title II of the Americans with Disabilities
Act (ADA).
If a student receives services through an IEP in high school, then there will be a formal written plan for
the transition from high school to the next phase of their life, whether that includes employment, post-
secondary education, or military service; this plan is required by the age of 14 and a half in Illinois. For
students receiving services through a 504 plan, parents can talk with the team developing and reviewing
the 504 plan to determine if transition planning and services are necessary for the student to be
successful after high school. In addition, the high school student with dyslexia should apply for and
secure appropriate accommodations for high-stakes testing. Documentation should include a
description of the student’s reading and writing skills and accommodations that the student uses for
academic support.
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If an individual is planning to move to a post-secondary educational setting (college, university, or trade
school), they may be able to access some accommodations through the institution’s disability services
office. Although their IEP or 504 plan does not follow a student into the new institution, these plans can
be used to document the disability and need for services and to discuss which accommodations may be
suitable in a higher education setting. Not all accommodations that were provided in high school may
be suitable for post-secondary education and these institutions are only required to provide services
which are deemed necessary to ensure the student is not discriminated against because of their
disability. Additionally, considerations must be made to ensure accommodations do not compromise
the overall quality and rigor of the post-secondary education program.
Another difference between services in high school and post-secondary education is that the individual
must be willing to advocate for themselves and reach out to disability services directly. In higher
education, this process must be initiated by the individual seeking services, and they must be willing to
regularly communicate with and reach out to the disability service providers to ensure their needs are
being met. Therefore, it is important students understand their reading and writing skills and needs so
they are able to work with their instructors and employers to problem solve the use of appropriate
supports and accommodations needed for success.
After high school, individuals are not required to disclose that they have a disability or that they received
services under an IEP or 504 plan. This information will not be reported to colleges, universities, or
employers by the district though it is often beneficial for these organizations to be informed by the
individual so they can better understand and support them in the workplace or educational setting.
Where to Start
Having a child who has dyslexia can be confusing, frustrating, and even scary, which is why it is essential
that parents and caregivers are actively involved in their child's education. Parents and caregivers are a
child's greatest advocates and often may notice signs of dyslexia before a school does. If this is the case,
it is essential for families and schools to work together in a partnership to ensure that a child is getting
the best services possible.
If, as a parent or caregiver, there are concerns regarding a child's reading, comprehension, spelling,
writing, learning, or any other sign of dyslexia found in Chapter
2, they should absolutely be brought up and discussed in the
educational setting. It is important for parents and caregivers to
write down their concerns and observations that they may have
regarding their child and make an appointment to discuss these
concerns with their child's teacher.
Talking with a Child’s Teacher about Concerns Related to Dyslexia
Parents and guardians can start by advocating for their child. Initially, consider sharing concerns and
observations and then discussing the following issues with the child’s teacher:
1. How much progress the child has made since the beginning of the school year and how that
progress is being measured.
2. If there is a history of dyslexia, reading difficulty, or any other neurobiological disorders in the
family.
44
3. The parent’s learning expectations for his/her child and what is being done to ensure that the
child makes adequate reading progress.
4. Where the child is in relation to grade level standards and peers.
5. How much time the child is spending on homework, especially if it seems excessive.
6. How much time is being spent on reading instruction, what types (if any) of support the child is
receiving, and what curriculum is being utilized.
7. What can be done at home to help and support the child’s reading and writing skills.
8. Suggestions from both the parent and educator regarding what may help the child in school
based on strengths and weaknesses.
Additionally, parents and caregivers should inquire about the reading instruction at the school/district.
All students, including those with dyslexia, should receive explicit, systematic, and evidence-based
reading instruction. See figure 7 for more information.
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Figure 7: Route to Reading: Check for Potholes
72
National Center on Improving Learning, 2020a, Route to Reading: Check for Potholes
45
Finally, consistent follow-up with the child’s teacher is important. This will allow for an ongoing
discussion of progress as well as opportunities to discuss successes and new concerns.
Screening, Assessment, and Evaluation
Universal screening is a systematic process for the assessment of all students on critical academic skills
within a given grade, school building, or school district. Universal screening yields data to make
decisions about needed enhancements in the core curriculum, instruction and/or educational
environment, and about which students may need additional screening or assessment and/or
supplemental or intensive intervention and instruction beyond what is provided through core
programming. Though the majority of schools do utilize some type of screener, there are schools who
opt to collect data in other ways.
Screening refers to the administration of a brief, informal test(s) used to provide a quick way to
determine whether further, more in-depth assessment (testing) is needed. An evaluation is a lengthier
and more complex process used to determine whether a child qualifies for special education. The
evaluation for special education may include data from various sources (i.e., progress-monitoring data,
achievement tests, rating scales, etc.) as well as teacher observations and work samples. In Illinois,
districts are required to use a process that determines how a child responds to scientific, research-based
interventions as part of the evaluation procedures if the child is suspected of having a Specific Learning
Disability (SLD). Moreover, an evaluation involves numerous educational professionals, usually takes
several hours, and requires that any test be administered by an appropriately qualified professional in
the child’s home language. If a student is suspected of having a Specific Learning Disability due to
dyslexia, the evaluation may include background information, intellectual functioning, oral-language
skills, word recognition, decoding, spelling, phonological processing, automaticity/fluency skills, reading
comprehension, vocabulary knowledge, etc. Information and data gathered through the evaluation
process will help the team (of which parents are members) decide if your child is in need of and eligible
to receive special education services.
Asking for School-based Support
If a student is having consistent and/or ongoing difficulties with reading, a caregiver, teacher, or other
education professional may request an evaluation for special education and related services. It is
suggested that this request for an evaluation be submitted in writing.
Within 14 calendar days after receiving a request for an evaluation, the
district will decide whether to conduct an evaluation. If the district
determines an evaluation is warranted because the student is suspected
of having a Specific Learning Disability such as dyslexia, then the district
must give the parent the paperwork to provide formal written consent
for the evaluation to proceed. At this time, the team will convene and
identify what specific data are needed to determine whether a child is
eligible for, in need of, and entitled to special education services. If the
district determines that the evaluation is not warranted, it must notify
the parent(s) in writing of the decision not to evaluate and the reasons
for the decision.
For more information and directions for requesting a special education evaluation, parents can visit the
ISBE website and review the parent guide, Educational Rights and Responsibilities: Understanding
46
Special Education in Illinois—The Parent Guide. This guide explains special education procedures and
processes, shows the required timeline of events, and provides families with sample letters and a blank
letter template for their use. In addition, there is a companion book: The Illinois Student Record Keeper:
For Parents of Students who Receive Special Education that can be used for documentation and record
keeping.
If parents or caregivers need additional information or assistance regarding their child’s educational
rights and live in Cook, DuPage, Grundy, Kane, Kendall, Lake, McHenry or Will County, the following
agency may be contacted:
Family Resource Center on Disabilities
11 E. Adams St., Suite 1002
Chicago, IL 60603
312-939-3513 voice / 312-939-3519 TTY & TDY
312-939-7297 FAX
800-952-4199 IL only
Email: info@frcd.org
Website: www.frcd.org
If parent(s) reside in any other county within the state of Illinois and need information or assistance,
they should contact:
Family Matters Parent Training and Information Center
1901 S. 4th Street, Suite 209
Effingham, IL 62401
217-347-5428 voice
217-318-3516 FAX
866-436-7842 Toll-Free
Email: info@fmptic.org
Website: www.fmptic.org
Qualifying for Special Education and/or Related Services
Upon completion of data gathering and the administration of assessments and other evaluation
measures, a group of qualified professionals and the parent/guardian of the child will form the
Individualized Education Program (IEP) team and will determine whether the child meets the criteria
for eligibility for special education. In order to qualify as a “student with a disability” under the federal
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), the student must meet the criteria of at least one of
the thirteen identified disabilities.
Specific Learning Disability (SLD) is defined by federal law as “a disorder in one or more of the basic
psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that may
manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical
calculations, including conditions such as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction,
dyslexia, and developmental aphasia.” It “does not include the learning problems that are primarily the
result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of intellectual disability, of emotional disturbance, or of
environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage.”
47
In order to meet the criteria for SLD in Illinois schools, a student must
73
:
a. Demonstrate performance that is significantly below the performance of peers or expected
standards (Discrepancy);
b. Exhibit significant deficiencies in his or her rate of learning based on progress monitoring
data (Educational Progress); and
c. Demonstrate that his or her needs in the area of curriculum, instruction, and/or
environmental conditions are significantly different than that of his or her general education
peers (Instructional Need), and in order to make educational progress, the student requires
interventions of an intensity or type that exceed general education resources.
While Specific Learning Disability (SLD) is the federally and state-recognized educational disability
category, the term “dyslexia” and the Illinois definition of dyslexia CAN be used to further describe the
student’s learning difficulties. However, if the student qualifies for special education services and thus
an IEP, they will need to be identified with one of the 13 eligibility labels, such as SLD or Other Health
Impairment (OHI).
To conclude that the student qualifies for special education, the IEP team must determine that (1) the
disability adversely affects the student’s educational performance and (2) the student requires specially
designed instruction in order to access the general education curriculum as a result of such disability.
Special education means specially designed instruction, at no cost to parents, to meet the unique needs
of a child with a disability. Specially designed instruction (SDI) refers to adapting, as appropriate to the
needs of an eligible child, the content, methodology, or delivery of instruction to address the unique
needs of the child that result from the child’s disability and to ensure access of the child to the general
curriculum in order to make meaningful academic progress in goal areas.
This eligibility determination must occur by the end of the 60
th
school day after parental consent for
evaluation is obtained. If the child is eligible to receive special education supports and services, an IEP
team must then meet with the parent/guardian to develop the IEP for the student within 30 days, but
no later than the 60
th
school day after consent for evaluation was obtained. Before the special education
services can begin, the parent/guardian must provide written informed consent to allow the district to
proceed with the services and placement. Services may begin no earlier than 10 school days unless the
team agrees that it is feasible for them to start sooner.
Not all students evaluated for a Specific Learning Disability will be identified with dyslexia. In addition,
because dyslexia varies in its severity, not all children and adolescents who demonstrate characteristics
of dyslexia or struggle with reading will qualify for special education. In fact, even an outside diagnosis
of dyslexia (or other related condition) does not automatically result in a student being eligible for and
entitled to special education services. Criteria used for diagnosing a reading disorder such as dyslexia
during an outside evaluation do not necessarily correspond with educational disability eligibility criteria
(such as criteria for specific learning disability or other health impairment). Therefore, a student may be
diagnosed with dyslexia, but may or may not be determined to be eligible for services under IDEA
(special education law). Children and adolescents who do not qualify for special education services may
be eligible for a 504 plan or may receive supplemental support through tiered interventions.
However, if your child meets the eligibility criteria for one of the legally defined disability categories, an
IEP will be developed and parental consent for placement will be required before services can be
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Illinois State Board of Education, 2021b, Instructions for Individualized Education Program Forms
48
initiated. Once an IEP is in place and services have begun, annual meetings will be held to review a
child’s progress towards his or her IEP goals at which time a new plan will be written.
If the consensus at the eligibility determination conference is that the student does not qualify for
special education services and a parent does not agree, it is suggested that the parent refer to the
parent guide, Educational Rights and Responsibilities: Understanding Special Education in Illinois and the
Notice of Procedural Safeguards document for further information and potential next steps.
What Parents and Caregivers Can Do at Home to Help
Having a child with dyslexia may seem overwhelming, and it is common to ask questions such as: What
do I do? How do I help? How do I “fix” it? While there is no cure for dyslexia, it is important to
understand that people who are diagnosed with dyslexia can be successful in school and in life. There
are several things that parents or guardians can do at home to help a child cope with the struggles of
being dyslexic.
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• Listen to audiobooks together or read out loud to your child to increase knowledge and
vocabulary.
• Recognize your child’s effort and cheer for their perseverance and hard work, even if there are
some errors.
• Support them in recognizing & acknowledging their strengths and things that they are
passionate about.
• Address negative self-talk. If your child begins expressing thoughts like, “I’m not smart,” don’t
dismiss it.
• Teach your child how to self-advocate so that they can feel success regardless of the situation.
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Martinelli & Cruger, n.d., Understanding Dyslexia
49
When your child was in first grade, the school contacted you concerned that your child was
demonstrating characteristics of dyslexia. Initially, you were nervous, but you worked with them to go
through the steps of problem solving and educate yourself as much as possible about the learning
disorder. The team agreed to implement interventions as well as give additional time for direct
instruction; they even intensified interventions when they were not working, but nothing seemed to
stick. Ultimately, after interventions were implemented and data was collected, your child was
evaluated for special education services and was found eligible under the category of Specific Learning
Disability in basic reading and reading comprehension. Your child was provided with specialized
instruction in reading, and things really seemed to be going well. Fast forward to 5th grade. You have
noticed lately that your child has been struggling with friends and self-worth; they report that they feel
dumb, and they do not want to go to school anymore. How can you help them?
Click for Answer
• Evaluation
• High-Stakes Testing
• Individualized
Education Program
(IEP)
• Screening
• Special Education
• Specially Designed
Instruction (SDI)
• Universal Screening
➢ Explore: The Yale Center for Dyslexia and Creativity portal for
parents
➢ Watch: Dr. Sally Shaywitz give Dyslexia Advice for Parents
➢ Utilize: Literacy Dialogue Tool for parents and caregivers from
the Colorado Department of Education
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Chapter 6: FOR EDUCATORS, ADMINISTRATORS, and OTHER SCHOOL
PERSONNEL SUPPORTING STUDENTS WITH DYSLEXIA
Components of Effective Literacy Instruction
More than twenty years ago, the National Reading Panel (2000) identified the following as essential
components of high-quality reading instruction:
● Explicit instruction in phonemic
awareness,
● Systematic phonics instruction,
● Methods to improve fluency, and
● Ways to enhance vocabulary and
comprehension.
Experts have come to realize that the above
components provide a solid foundation for
quality reading instruction; however, one must
consider both the “what” and the “how” when
focusing on the effective implementation of
literacy instruction for students with dyslexia
and other reading challenges. Related to the
“how”, explicit and systematic instruction is
imperative for students who struggle to learn, including those with dyslexia. Explicit instruction refers to
a direct approach that is unambiguous and includes both design and delivery procedures. Modeling,
scaffolding, ample opportunities to respond, and the provision of quality feedback are hallmarks of
explicit instruction.
In addition to the instruction being explicit, it should also be systematic and cumulative. Systematic and
cumulative instruction refers to teaching that has a carefully planned sequence which builds from easier
to more difficult tasks breaking down those more complex skills into smaller parts. Scope and sequence
play an important role in systematic, cumulative instruction as it is integral that prerequisite skills be
taught first and then subsequent skills build upon those earlier, foundational skills. Reviewing previously
learned skills is also a way to ensure that instruction is systematic and cumulative. Moreover, diagnostic
teaching allows the teacher to know where to begin, when to proceed, and what needs to be retaught.
Through frequent assessment and monitoring of progress, one can pinpoint student strengths and
needs and thus best utilize instructional time.
Students with dyslexia often require instruction
which not only targets the skills and employs the
procedures described above, but they also often
need instruction which is more intensive than other
students. Skill deficits and working memory
challenges mean they may need additional time,
repeated exposures, and significant amounts of
practice. Small-group or individual delivery provides
increased numbers of opportunities to respond and
51
allows the student to receive more individualized and more frequent feedback from the teacher.
Furthermore, students with dyslexia or other reading challenges perform better when instruction
integrates all areas of literacy and provides multimodal practice opportunities. For example, rather than
having a separate spelling book or lesson, spelling should be interwoven with reading, writing, and word
study. This will aid students in making important connections and will reinforce reciprocal and related
skill acquisition. Finally, by utilizing varied modalities for practice, it is more likely that students will be
engaged in the lesson and that they will be able to better remember and apply the skills they are
learning. An additional consideration in the implementation of effective instruction for students with
dyslexia is the fact that these students require highly skilled teachers who understand the student’s
individual needs as well as the process through which reading occurs.
Structured Literacy Approach
Research has shown that Structured Literacy Instruction (SL) is the most effective approach to learning
to read and write, yet critical for those who have difficulties with reading and writing. Because dyslexia
and most reading disorders originate with language processing issues, it is important that the content of
instruction is the analysis and production of language at all levels: sounds, spellings for sounds and
syllables, patterns and conventions of the writing system, meaningful parts of words, sentences,
paragraphs, and discourse within longer texts. In addition, SL involves hands-on, engaging practice that
is multimodal (e.g. manipulating letter tiles, using gestures, writing, saying, color-coding, etc.) and it is
diagnostic and responsive. In short, Structured Literacy instruction is characterized by the provision of
systematic, explicit instruction that integrates listening, speaking, reading, and writing through a variety
of activities and that the teacher uses student response patterns to adjust to student need.
According to the International Dyslexia Association, Structured Literacy should include the following
75
:
Phoneme awareness. Becoming consciously aware of the individual speech sounds (phonemes)
that make up words is a critical foundation for learning to read and spell. A phoneme is the
smallest unit of speech that can change the meaning of a word. For example, the different vowel
phonemes in mist, mast, must, and most create different words. Although linguists do not agree
on the list of phonemes within the language, English has approximately 44 phonemes–26
consonants and 18 vowel sounds.
75
International Dyslexia Association, 2019b, Structured Literacy
52
In preschool and early kindergarten, children typically learn the underpinnings for phoneme
awareness, including rhyming, counting spoken syllables, and reciting phrases beginning with
the same sound. By the end of kindergarten, children should identify each speech sound by ear
and be able to take apart and say the separate sounds of simple words with two and three
sounds. More advanced phoneme awareness skills, especially important for spelling and reading
fluency, include rapidly and accurately taking apart the sounds in spoken words (segmentation),
putting together (blending) speech sound sequences, and leaving out (deleting) or substituting
one sound for another to make a new word. A large proportion of individuals with dyslexia have
difficulty with this level of language analysis and need prolonged practice to grasp it.
Table 5: Phonemic Awareness Activities
Phonemic Awareness Activity
Example
Isolation/Identification
What is the final sound in cat? … /t/
What is the medial sound in pig? …/i/
Blending
What word is /c/…./a/…./t/?
What word is /sh/…./o/…/p/?
Segmentation
How many sounds are in clock?
What sounds are in last?
Deletion/Addition
Change the /f/ in flip to /s/.
What is cat without the /c/?
Add /b/ to the beginning of the word at.
Phoneme awareness is an essential foundation for reading and writing with an alphabet. In an
alphabetic writing system like English, letters and letter combinations represent phonemes.
Decoding (and encoding) print is possible only if the reader can map print to speech and speech
to print efficiently; therefore, the elements of speech must be clearly and consciously identified
in the reader’s mind.
Sound-Symbol (phoneme-grapheme) correspondences. An alphabetic writing system like
English represents phonemes with graphemes. Graphemes are letters (a, s, t, etc.) and letter
combinations (th, ng, oa, ew, igh, etc.) that
represent phonemes in print. The basic code for
written words is the system of correspondences
between phonemes and graphemes. This system
is often referred to as the alphabetic principle.
The correspondences between letters and
speech sounds in English are more complex and variable than some languages such as Spanish
or Italian. Nevertheless, the sound-symbol correspondences can be explained and taught
through systematic, explicit, cumulative instruction that may take several years to complete.
53
When explicitly teaching phoneme-grapheme correspondences, it is important to provide
decodable text as a scaffold for student learning. Decodable text consists of phonics that
students have learned. In this way, students can explicitly practice and utilize their knowledge in
regard to the learned phoneme-grapheme correspondences in text. Decodable text can be in
the form of words, phrases, sentences, passages, or even books. Decodable text differs from
leveled or predictable text in that it primarily relies on phonics to help emergent readers decode
words, whereas leveled or predictable text often contains repetitive patterns or no patterns at
all.
Patterns and conventions of print (orthography). Through explicit instruction and practice,
students with dyslexia can be taught to understand and remember patterns of letter use in the
writing system through encoding or spelling. The paired association between letters and sounds
is called phonics. Examples of phonics concepts include spellings for consonant sounds, such as
–ck, –tch, and –dge, which are used only after short vowels. Some letters, like v and j, cannot be
used at the ends of words. Only some letters are doubled. Some letters work to signal the
sounds of other letters. These conventions can all be taught as part of the print system, or
orthography.
As we teach these conventions of print, we are wiring student brains to orthographically map
words. As previously mentioned, orthographic mapping is turning unfamiliar words into
instantly accessible words to recognize on sight.
76
In this way, students who are able to
orthographically map words will increase automaticity when reading instead of having to rely on
laborious decoding.
Print patterns and conventions exist as well for representing the vowel sounds in written
syllables. It is a convention that almost every written syllable in English has a vowel grapheme.
Structured Literacy programs usually teach six basic types of written syllables: closed (com,
mand), open (me, no), vowel-consonant-e (take, plete), vowel team (vow, mean), vowel-r
combinations (car, port), and the final consonant-le pattern (lit-tle, hum-ble). Recognizing
written syllable patterns helps a reader divide longer words into readable chunks and helps in
understanding spelling conventions such as doubling of consonant letters (little vs. title). Two
examples are listed below. First, the word cat is mapped in Elkonin (also referred to as sound)
boxes. Each box represents one sound. In the word cat, there are three sounds: /c/ /a/ /t/. Each
grapheme, or letter, is written in one sound box. Below, the word chair is mapped as if a student
knows and understands that the grapheme, or letter(s), ch represents the /ch/ sound, the ai
grapheme represents the /A/ sound, and the grapheme r represents the /r/ sound. Note that
while ch is two letters, the grapheme represents one sound, so it is placed in one sound box.
The same is true for ai – because ai represents one sound, it is placed in one sound box.
c
a
t
ch
ai
r
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Kilpatrick, 2015, Essentials of Assessing, Precenting, and Overcoming Reading Difficulties
54
Morphology. A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in a language. Morphemes include
prefixes, roots, base words, and suffixes. Often, prefixes and suffixes are referred to as affixes
because they attach to a base or root to modify the meaning. These meaningful units are often
spelled consistently even though pronunciation changes as they are combined into words
(define, definition; nation, national; restore, restoration). Recognizing morphemes helps
students figure out and remember the meanings of new words. In addition, knowledge of
morphology is an aid for remembering spellings such as at-tract-ive and ex-press-ion. In
Structured Literacy programs, morphology is included not only to help build vocabulary, but to
support the transition from decoding single syllable words to multisyllabic words (see figure 8).
Figure 8: Building a Word
Syntax. Syntax is the system for ordering words in sentences so that meaning can be
communicated. The study of syntax includes understanding parts of speech and conventions of
grammar and word use in sentences. Lessons include interpretation and formulation of simple,
compound, and complex sentences, and work with both phrases and clauses in sentence
construction.
Semantics. Semantics is the aspect of language concerned with meaning. Meaning is conveyed
both by single words and by phrases and sentences. Comprehension of both oral and written
language is developed by teaching word meanings (vocabulary), interpretation of phrases and
sentences, and understanding of text organization.
Reading comprehension is a product of both word recognition and language comprehension.
Throughout SL instruction, students should be supported as they work with many kinds of
texts—stories, informational text, poetry, drama, and so forth, even if that text is read aloud to
students who cannot yet read it independently. Reading worthwhile texts that stimulate deep
thinking is a critical component of Structured Literacy.
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When utilized with students who have dyslexia, instruction that is designed using the tenets of
Structured Literacy (i.e. addresses all components and is systematic, cumulative, explicit, and
diagnostic) results in greater skill acquisition, improved retention, and the ability for students to
not only maintain, but transfer or generalize skills as they build on their prior knowledge and
their skill repertoire. Furthermore, while the use of a SL approach is essential to the 60% of
77
International Dyslexia Association, 2019b, Structured Literacy: Effective Instruction for Students with
Dyslexia and Related Reading Difficulties
55
students who struggle to learn to read, it is beneficial for all students. Figure 9 depicts the
appropriateness and value of SL for all developing readers.
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Figure 9: The Ladder of Reading and Writing
This graphic was used with Nancy Young’s permission. See Young’s website for more information.
Structured Literacy Instruction in comparison to the literacy practices that have been in widespread use
in schools across the past few decades shows a significant difference. Table 6 compares the SL approach
and “typical” literacy practices so one can better understand how the instructional approaches differ.
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Young, 2023, Nancy Young – The Ladder of Reading and Writing
56
Table 6: Structured Literacy Comparison Chart
Structured Literacy
More “Typical” Literacy
Practices
Initial Phonics
Approach
Emphasizes phoneme-grapheme
level approach
Often emphasizes larger -unit
approach such as the use of word
families
Attention to Phonemic
Awareness
Phonemic awareness such as
blending, and segmentation are
explicitly taught
Little attention on phonemic
awareness activities
Connection Between
Spelling and Decoding
Instruction
Beginners work on similar
patterns (e.g. CVC words) in
decoding and spelling
Often not well-coordinated;
focus may be on memorizing
whole words rather than
applying phonics skills
Instructional Delivery
Prioritizes teacher-led, explicit
systematic instruction
Teacher-led, explicit instruction is
often not a priority
Types of Texts
Texts used for instruction are
coordinated with phonics
program so that most words in
them are decodable by children
(often referred to as
“decodables”).
Leveled or predictable texts are
typically used; these contain
many words that inexperienced
readers cannot decode
Teacher Feedback to
Shape Oral Reading
Prompt feedback that
encourages close attention to
print and application of decoding
skills
Teacher feedback may be limited
and focus on guessing or the use
of context to determine words
As one can see, the approaches differ in numerous
ways. Moreover, the research is clear that SL is an
approach that provides what students with dyslexia
and other reading challenges need to optimize their
likelihood of reading success.
Interventions and Programs
Several national organizations curate public directories containing qualified professionals specializing in
offering Structured Literacy intervention, a crucial support for students exhibiting traits of dyslexia. This
intervention method is alternatively recognized as Orton-Gillingham based instruction or multisensory
structured language instruction.
● The Center for Effective Reading Instruction (CERI),
● Academic Language Therapy Association (ALTA),
● Academy of Orton-Gillingham Practitioners and Educators (AOG), and
● Wilson Language Training.
57
These training programs ensure that educators meet the International Dyslexia Association Knowledge
& Practice Standards for Teachers of Reading. A list of accredited courses and training to become a
qualified dyslexia practitioner can be found at the International Multisensory Structured Language
Education Council (IMSLEC), the Academic Therapy Association (ALTA) and the International Dyslexia
Association.
While a trained educator, specialist, or therapist in every school is ideal, it is equally critical to
implement an evidence-based intervention curriculum to support the needs of students who are
struggling to read. Some examples of intervention curriculum include the following:
● Lindamood-Bell,
● Wilson Language System, and
● Spell-Links.
Using the Evidence
To make wise curricular decisions and determine which practices and approaches to use for students
with dyslexia and other reading challenges, it is important that educators and schools rely on the
research to guide their practice as well as program adoption.
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and Elementary and Secondary Education Act
(ESEA) expect that schools employ programs, curricula, and practices based on "scientifically-based
research" "to the extent practicable." This means that whenever possible, the educational interventions
and programs being used must be strongly supported by evidence from well-conducted research
studies. Educational research may be said to be scientific when:
● It uses sound research design,
● It is based on high quality data collection and analysis,
● It involves other experts in critically reviewing the study’s design and results. The study should
be peer-reviewed and reported in a journal, or some type of white paper or report so other
researchers can review the methods used and replicate the research in other settings,
● It can be replicated; the more studies or research that support a program or practice, the
stronger the evidence, and
● Additionally, whereas experimental designs with a control group (students who do not receive
the “treatment” or intervention) are considered as those capable of producing the strongest
evidence, other designs can also indicate positive (and promising) outcomes.
When a practice or program is developed based on research and has been “tested” yielding positive
outcomes, it is considered “evidence-based” which is a more rigorous metric.
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National Center on Improving Literacy, 2020a, Route to Reading, Check for Potholes
58
Under IDEA, instruction must be individualized based on the student's needs. That is why it is especially
important that the knowledge and experience of professionals and caregivers are considered when
deciding how to teach a student with disabilities. Professionals (and caregivers) should know about
instructional practices and interventions that have been shown by research to be most effective. These
research-based or evidence-based practices should then be matched with a student's unique needs and
skills when developing a student's Individualized Education Program (IEP). It is important to record what
works so that evidence can emerge over time that offers new insights into teaching and learning for
students with disabilities including those with dyslexia.
After evaluating research quality, one can utilize the FAIR TEST to determine whether a practice or
program is a good fit for the students with whom it is intended to be used. The FAIR Test addresses the
following concepts:
● Feasibility: is it possible to implement the intervention as designed (with fidelity)?
● Acceptability: what do students, families, and professionals think about the intervention?
● Impact: is there evidence of positive results from implementation of the intervention?
● Relevance: was the intervention used with students who have similar characteristics to those
with whom you work?
If the intervention does not meet the FAIR criteria, then decision makers should look for new evidence
that does, or consider whether a different practice, strategy, or program would be a better fit.
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Teachers and other school personnel must understand what constitutes quality research as well as
where to find guidance related to which practices or programs have the greatest prospect of being
effective and with which students. To this end, there are various places one can access information that
analyzes the research base. Places to look for evidence include:
● Evidence for ESSA,
● What Works Clearinghouse Practice Guides,
● What Works Clearinghouse Resources for Educators,
● National Center on Intensive Intervention Tools Charts,
● 10 Keys Lists,
● FCRR Reading Repository,
● Toolkit for Families,
● Literacy Dialog Tool,
● The Reading League Curriculum Evaluation Tool (K-5), and
● Planning and Evaluation Tool for Effective Schoolwide Reading Programs - Revised (PET-R).
Cautions Related to the Evidence
When attempting to determine the appropriateness of an intervention or program for students with
dyslexia or those who struggle with reading, there are several cautions to consider. If the research was
completed by the same person or group who is selling the product, this could be a key concern as the
results from independent evaluations are more reliable. In addition, one must consider the
demographics of the participants in any study. Do they match the student population with whom you
intend to use the practice or program-in terms of disability, age, functioning, race, gender, geographic
location, SES, etc.? Finally, how big is the body of evidence that supports the practice or program? If
there are a limited number of studies or the studies all involved a small number of participants, one
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National Center for Systemic Improvement, n.d., Guiding Questions: The FAIR Test
59
should be more cautious than if there were many large studies completed on the program or practice
across time
81
.
Dyslexia Treatments and Other Approaches NOT Supported by Research
Not only does science tell us what works for students with dyslexia and other reading challenges, we
also know that there are some commonly advertised “treatments” which have not been proven
effective. Ineffective treatments or practices include the following:
● Colored overlays,
82
● Specialized fonts designed for those with dyslexia,
83
● Vision therapy,
84
● Specific Working Memory Training Programs,
85
● Three-cueing systems (i.e. skip the word and come back to it, look at the picture, try a word that
makes sense) which are sometimes referred to as MSV (Meaning, Structure, Visual),
86
● Memorizing lists of sight words by whole word or word shape,
87
and
● Learning spelling words by rote memorization for weekly spelling tests.
88
Accommodations
Many students with dyslexia or other learning disabilities require accommodations to access the content
being taught. Accommodations are changes to how content is delivered to a student, or the materials
that are used during instruction. They do not change the
standard; rather accommodations “level the playing
field” for students with dyslexia or other learning needs.
If a student has an Individualized Education Program
(IEP) or a 504 plan, accommodations are required to be
clearly described in that document. Regardless, all
accommodations should be designed to meet individual
student needs and should be revisited regularly to
discuss necessity and benefit. Further, the student who
is using accommodations should still be expected to
participate in the classroom discussion (as appropriate). It is imperative that accommodations are not
put in place of an intervention. Students with dyslexia should receive both appropriate intervention and
accommodations. When planning accommodations for students with dyslexia, there are a number of
things that should be considered:
● Just because a student needs an accommodation, the educator should NOT reduce learning
expectations,
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REL Midwest, 2019, ESSA Tiers of Evidence
82
Griffiths, et al., 2016, The Effect of Coloured Overlays and Lenses on Reading
83
Kuster, et al., 2017, Dyslexia Font Does Not Benefit Reading In Children With or Without Dyslexia
84
Handler & Fierson, 2011, Learning Disabilities, Dyslexia, and Vision
85
Melby-Lervag, Redick, & Hulma, 2016, Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on
measure of Intelligence or Other Measures of Far Transfer
86
Kilpatrick, 2015, Essentials of Assessing, Precenting, and Overcoming Reading Difficulties
87
Kilpatrick, 2019, Reading Development and Difficulties
88
Carreker & Birsh, 2019, Multisensory Teaching of Basic Language Skills
60
● Accommodations do NOT eliminate the effects of a student’s disability, and
● Accommodations should allow students to access grade level curriculum and to demonstrate
learned knowledge despite their disability.
While considering accommodations for students who have dyslexia, it is important to only provide
accommodations within deficit areas. For example, if data shows that a student demonstrates a need in
text reading, but not in writing, then accommodations should only be provided in the area of text
reading. Following is a list of possible accommodations to consider when planning for a student with
dyslexia:
Presentation Accommodations
● Provide audiobooks for students to use to support reading printed texts,
● Provide text-to-speech technology to allow student to hear digital text,
● Clarify or simplify written directions,
● Utilize spelling words that assess specific linguistic elements (such as CVC or CVCe) rather than
general vocabulary topics, and whenever feasible, select words from the student’s phonics-
based intervention program for their spelling list,
● Provide a copy of notes and reduce copying by including information on handouts or
worksheets,
● Provide step-by-step instructions (oral and written),
● Repeat directions then check to ensure student understanding,
● Provide graphic organizers for extended reading and writing tasks,
● Pre-teach new and important concepts,
● Employ multimodal techniques for new skill acquisition (e.g. reading, writing, saying, moving
manipulatives, etc.),
● Pair visuals with printed text for directions and schedules,
● Use large-print fonts for worksheets if preferred by the student,
● Provide bookmarks or another tool to follow along when reading,
● Allow access to spellcheck, speech-to-text, or predictive text,
● Provide alphabet strips for student reference for efficiency and to provide a correct model,
● Provide sentence starters that show how to begin a written response,
● Show examples of written work that is correct to serve as models for students, and
● Arrange questions or problems on worksheets from least to most difficult.
Response Accommodations
● Oral testing or prompting when allowable,
● Assignments and tests should be evaluated primarily for content; however, attention should be
paid to identifying issues like letter reversals, spelling errors, and punctuation mistakes, which
will be acknowledged but not used to lower the grade,
● Allow student to type their writing assignments via computer,
● Allow oral reports or small-group presentations in lieu of written reports,
● Only ask the student to read aloud if he volunteers (when in group/in front of peers),
● Offer alternative response options (oral answers rather than written, matching or circling rather
than filling in the blank, etc.),
61
● Allow lectures to be recorded,
● Allow the use of a scribe so students can dictate responses to test questions or for writing tasks,
● Allow grammar check or a “proofreader” to identify written errors, and
● Utilize collaborative or cooperative learning where each student has a specific role or part of the
task.
Setting Accommodations
● Allow student to test in a quiet location, and
● Allow student to have assessment read out loud in an alternate location.
Timing Accommodations
● Provide extra time for reading and writing, and
● Provide a timeline for extended reading and writing assignments.
Modifications
For some students, accommodations alone will not be enough for them to adequately access the
general education curriculum. In these cases, students may require modifications to the curriculum.
Unlike accommodations, modifications do, in fact, change what a student is taught or expected to learn
as well as the standard the student is expected to meet. Since modifications change the expectations
and tasks that a student is required to master, they are only appropriate in situations where a student
qualifies for an IEP and should not be utilized for students with 504 plans or as part of MTSS. In addition,
it is imperative that accommodations and modifications are paired with interventions rather than used
in isolation. Students with dyslexia should receive both appropriate interventions and accommodations
and/or modifications, if needed.
Examples of Possible Modifications
● Books or articles written at a lower reading level,
● Shorten an essay to a single paragraph,
● Complete a worksheet on a similar topic rather than an extended project,
● Learning concepts which are significantly different than peers (for example, peers are learning
how to structure a paragraph while a student is learning to write a sentence), and
● Outlining a chapter rather than summarizing a chapter of reading.
Teaching Strategies to Support Students with Dyslexia
There is not a one-size-fits-all approach to providing accommodations and modifications to students
with Specific Learning Disabilities, and in the classroom, ensuring the needs of all students are met can
be difficult. There are several strategies that can be implemented within the classroom to benefit all
students, especially those with dyslexia and/or SLD:
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● Use explicit teaching procedures,
● Clarify both written and spoken directions, even if you think that they are simple,
89
International Dyslexia Association, 2017, Dyslexia in the Classroom: What Every Teacher Needs to
Know
62
● Present work in small chunks,
● When presenting a lot of information at once, highlight what is essential,
● Provide ample opportunities for practice,
● Use graphic organizers whenever possible,
● Combine verbal and visual information,
● Entwine mnemonic devices into instruction,
● Review the previous day’s content every day, and
● Have clear and consistent procedures and expectations.
Assistive Technology
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires that the IEP team consider Assistive
Technology (AT) needs in the development of an IEP (IDEA, Section 1414(d)(3)(B)(v)). Assistive
Technology should also be considered for students with a 504 plan. The use of appropriate AT devices
and services can allow students with disabilities to participate in, benefit from, and maximize
accessibility to the general education curriculum and ensuring FAPE. In fact, AT can be utilized for any
student who struggles, including those with dyslexia. Examples of AT which might benefit struggling
readers and writers range from low-tech to high tech options and should be considered on an individual
basis. Various technology options are available for students of different ages and skill ranges with
numerous programs and extensions now including built-in features that incorporate principles of
Universal Design for Learning (UDL). Just a few examples of AT that may be beneficial for students with
dyslexia include:
• Tracking Aids,
• Expanded spacing between words,
• Spell check,
• Word prediction software,
• Speech-to-text software, and
• Text-to-speech software.
When working to determine whether a student will benefit from AT, there is a four-step process that
can be used
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.
• Consideration: The IEP Team determines whether or not a student needs AT in order to receive
a FAPE.
• Provision: The team determines how the AT will be acquired and be provided to the student.
• Implementation: The team identifies who needs to be trained in order for the AT to be used
effectively and a contingency plan should be developed in case the AT becomes damaged or
unavailable for student use.
• Progress Monitoring: The team collects data to demonstrate that the student’s performance
continues to be impacted by their use of the AT; if the student’s performance is not impacted by
the AT, the team should return to the consideration process of the cycle.
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Illinois Assistive Technology Support, 2021, Infinitec
63
Keep in mind that any decision regarding AT should be made by a team rather than an individual.
Additionally, the team should consist of not only educators and caregivers, but also the student who will
be using the AT.
The ultimate goal of using AT is to increase accessibility for students with disabilities; when properly
implemented, AT increases student independence and access to content. More information regarding
accessibility can be found at The National Center on Accessible Educational Materials. Additionally, as
with many other tools, matching the AT to student need and preference is integral to its successful use.
For more information on AT selection and use, see the Illinois AT Guidance Manual, or visit the Illinois
Assistive Technology Support Project, which is a project that provides professional learning in the areas
of assistive technology and UDL.
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Multilingual Learners and Dyslexia
Multilingual Learners (MLLs), previously referred to as English Learners (ELs) or English Language
Learners (ELLs), are individuals who are learning an additional language or languages. In Illinois, students
who speak a primary language at home other than English are identified as MLLs. As of 2022, 13.7% of
students in Illinois are classified as MLLs with this number steadily increasing since 2017.
92
Multilingual Learners and Dyslexia
Dyslexia is a neurobiological, brain-based disorder that affects individuals of all ages across different
languages.
93
Dyslexia is found in all languages, including Asian languages with logographic orthographies,
such as Chinese and Japanese.
94
While dyslexia is present across all languages, it can manifest differently
throughout various written systems.
Assessment of Multilingual Learners
Due to a risk of a “false positive” result, dyslexia indicators in multilingual students are often ignored.
95
Educational specialists may also have the view that multilingual learners possess processing difficulties
due to poor language proficiency, instead of a learning difficulty such as dyslexia.
96
When considering
assessment measures for multilingual students, it is important to understand the structure of the
languages, in addition to determining whether the student has a dominant language.
97
Because
language preference can be unconsciously determined by a student’s individual pattern of learning
instead of social or family conventions, assessment of multilingual learners must consider the individual
student’s strengths and challenges in relation to the languages of different orthography. Teachers
should consider home language, the opportunities the student has to interact with two (or more)
languages, and how often the student communicates in each language. This offers a picture of the
student’s verbal ability and guidance for which assessments might be offered.
91
Illinois Assistive Technology Support, 2021, Infinitec
92
Illinois State Board of Education, 2020a, English Learners in Illinois
93
Peer & Reid, 2014, Multilingualism, Literacy and Dyslexia
94
Peer & Reid, 2014, Multilingualism, Literacy and Dyslexia
95
Peer & Reed, 2014, Multilingualism, Literacy and Dyslexia
96
Dal, 2008, Dyslexia and Foreign Language Learning
97
Firman, 2000, The Bilingual Dyslexia Child
64
It is useful to examine the correct identification of dyslexia in multilingual students through two
approaches. One approach considers language-dependent tasks which connect to a student’s language
processing abilities. These abilities include phonological awareness and non-word repetition.
Phonological skills have been shown to be the main predictor of a child’s literacy learning in multiple
languages, irrespective of the other orthographic transparency.
98
Consequently, the assessment of
phonological skills is a helpful tool for identifying dyslexia in language/literacy contexts.
99
Another
approach considers language independent tasks that connect to a student’s non-linguistic cognitive
skills.
100
Examples of these skills can include naming speed, rhythmic timing and inhibitory control
(which show some correlation with reading development).
101
Since language proficiency does not
appear to largely affect either of these approaches, they are suitable for assessing multilingual learners.
Additionally, multilingual students benefit from assessment in the home language and partner language
in the areas of phoneme discrimination, blending skills, segmentation skills, and spelling. Spelling can
help determine whether there is interference between one language and another (e.g. “ship” written as
“xip”).
102
Taking multiple approaches into account offers a more appropriate method for identifying
dyslexia in linguistically diverse learners.
Identification of Dyslexia in Multilingual Learners
When attempting to determine if a multilingual learner shows characteristics of dyslexia, there are four
things to consider before screening: proficiency in home language, developmental history, educational
background, and English language proficiency. Additionally, keep in mind that students reading in a
language different from their home language will, for some period of second language learning, show
evidence of “poor” reading skills.
103
It is essential to consider the whole student and their entire
background before screening for dyslexia. Ideally, when assessing, students should be assessed in their
native language; however, when their language is difficult to assess, there is value in assessing in English,
especially for certain measures (Phonemic Awareness & Rapid Automatized Naming) because there are
phonology networks that overlap between first and second languages.
104
After all pertinent information is considered and it has been determined that a student has more than
just language needs, further information should be collected. Like the process for identifying dyslexia in
English speakers, assessments may be done regarding foundational reading skills such as phonological
awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension.
Universal Characteristics of Dyslexia Across Languages
● Slower than average reading speed,
98
Everatt, et. al., 2013, Assessment Approaches for Multilingual Learners with Dyslexia
99
Firman, 1999, The Bilingual Dyslexia Child
100
Taha, et, al., 2022, Identifying the Risk of Dyslexia in Bilingual Children
101
Taha, et, al., 2022, Identifying the Risk of Dyslexia in Bilingual Children
102
Firman, 1999, The Bilingual Dyslexia Child
103
Everatt, et al., 2002, Dyslexia Assessment of the Biscriptal Reader
104
Pugh, et al., 2023, The Neuroscience of Language and Literacy
65
● Slower performance on measures of Rapid Automatized Naming (RAN),
● Deficiencies in phonemic awareness prior to reading instruction,
● Less accurate detection and production of rhymes,
● Initial difficulty with phonological processing,
● Inaccurate spelling, and
● Poor verbal memory.
105
How Districts can Support MLLs with Dyslexia
Multilingual learners are not a homogenous group; therefore, it is important to differentiate both
linguistic and academic scaffolds to address student-specific needs.
If there is a student in the classroom who is a multilingual learner and has dyslexia, there are several
things that can be done to support their education:
● Leverage the student’s home language, background knowledge, and cultural background as
much as possible. These are assets, not deficits.
● Support oral language development as it is essential and must be included for instruction and
intervention in both home language and in English.
● Foundational literacy skills should be taught explicitly and systematically.
● Establish predictable routines.
● When possible, provide support in the student’s home language.
● Use direct, clear, and consistent language.
● Provide extra time for processing, writing, and responding.
● Provide visual and verbal supports and other linguistic accommodations to make content
comprehensible.
● Build on and incorporate information with which the student is already familiar.
● Make purposeful connections between reading, writing, speaking, and listening.
● Utilize differentiated (e.g., for language and reading) small-group instruction to support literacy
development.
● Explicitly teach home and English language development.
● Explicitly teach morphological awareness in home language and English.
● Capitalize on cross-linguistic connections and explicitly teach metalanguage awareness.
107
● Create conditions for daily, ample language use related to text and content being learned.
● Work collaboratively with the MLL department if present in your school.
105
Peer & Reid, 2014, Multilingualism, Literacy and Dyslexia
106
Cavazos & Ortiz, 2020, Incorporating Oral Language Assessment into MTSS/RtI Frameworks
107
Martinez, et. al., 2023, Fostering Cross linguistic Knowledge About Language
66
Bidialectal Speakers
Bidialectal speakers are often referred to as those who speak a variety of dialects in addition to General
American English (GAE). Moreover, dialect refers to a version of a language spoken by a group of people
distinguished by characteristics such as race, ethnicity, religion, and/or geographic region.
108
When
children start school, they come as experts in the language system of their home and community. It is
important that educators are knowledgeable of the dialects, or language varieties, of the students in
their class so that they can support their learning of General American English (GAE). Examples of
varieties of English include African-American English (AAE), Mexican-American English (Chicano
English), Cajun English, Gullah, Southern English and many more. “In fact, in the U.S., all English
speakers speak a dialect of American English. Whether referring to a “Southern drawl” in the Southeast,
“mountain speech” in the Appalachians, or a wicked Boston “r” in the Northeast, dialects are not “bad,”
“incorrect,” or “broken” English. Rather, they are systematic, rule-governed variations of GAE, with
different rules for expressing the same form, content, and use of a language. Often, these differences do
not map well onto English orthography, making spoken dialect variation an important consideration for
reading instruction”.
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How Districts Can Support Instruction for Bidialectal Students
Instead of viewing the language variety and variation as a deficit, it is important to acknowledge that
“Bidialectalism (and bilingualism) is not a risk in need of being remedied.”
110
Each student has unique
language experiences which allow them linguistic flexibility which may have different implications for
literacy experiences. Furthermore, language variations of English must be recognized, respected, and
affirmed in order to support students in bridging the two variations for development of strong literacy
skills. These students are linguistically diverse, as they both understand and shift between their dialect
and GAE when using expressive language (speaking and writing) or receptive language (listening and
reading).
111
The extent to which a student’s oral language variety differs from that of print, their “dialect density”,
will have implications for learning to read and write. These students will generally require more practice
and exposure to integrate print and oral language to support reading and writing. Furthermore,
“students need to have access to their full linguistic repertoire when learning a new language system,”
and the instructional support to do so.
112
Moreover, teacher knowledge in regard to dialects is imperative as it directly impacts assessment and
instruction. “Language varieties can impact all language domains (i.e., morphology, syntax, semantics,
phonology, and pragmatics), meaning that speakers may have dialect-specific rules for how sentences
108
Washington & Seidenberg, 2021, Teaching Reading to African American Children
109
Johnson & Gatlin-Nash, 2020, Evidence-Based Reading Difficulties Among African American Learners
110
Terry, Gatlin, & Johnson, 2018, Same or Different
111
Pittman, et al., 2023, The Importance of Phonemic Awareness Instruction for African American
Students
112
Washington, Lee-James, & Standford, 2023, Teaching Phonemic and Phonological Awareness to
Children Who Speak African American English
67
are created and which phonological features are appropriate for use in a given word or context”.
Understanding linguistic differences is necessary in order to differentiate them from linguistic deficits.
For example, a major phonological feature of AAE (African-American English) is final consonant deletion.
Additional features are indicated in the chart below. Knowledge of these linguistic features is helpful for
teachers with instruction in oral language and print.
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Table 7: Key Features of African-American English (AAE)
Verb Morphology
Description
Examples
Variable past tense
The -ed marker is variably
attached to verb forms in past
tense contexts
The cow jump_ over the moon.
He fix_ the broken car.
Variable plural
The -s marker is variably attached
to nouns
She saw three cat_ in the
window. A girl puttin’ some
glass_ on the table to drink.
Variable third person -s
The -s marker is variably included
on the verb in third-person
singular contexts.
My friend want_ to buy some
candy when we get to the store.
Variable possessive
The -s marker is variably included
to mark possession, and
possessive pronouns are variably
marked.
I rode in my uncle_ car. They
waitin’ for they car.
Syntax
Variable subject-verb
agreement
Subject and verb do not agree in
tense and number
My friends was runnin’ fast to
catch the bus.
Variable inclusion of to be in
copula (linking) and auxiliary
forms
Main and auxiliary forms of the
verb to be are variably included.
This __ my red car.
They __ watchin’ the girls jump
rope. *
Phonology
Consonant cluster reduction
Consonant clusters in the final
position of words are reduced to
one final consonant.
col_/ cold
fiel_/ field
cas_/ cast
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Washington, Lee-James, & Standford, 2023, Teaching Phonemic and Phonological Awareness to
Children Who Speak African American English
68
Dropped “g”
Variable inclusion of g in the final
position of a word ending in -ing.
jumpin_ /jumping
waitin_ /waiting
goin_/ going
Intervocalic and postvocalic
positions for specific sounds
Following a vowel, voiceless and
voiced th sounds in medial and
final positions of words are
replaced by /f/, /t/, or /v/;
Preceding a vowel, the voiced th
sound in the initial position of
words is replaced with /d/.
wif/with
wit/with
baye/bathe
dis/this
dem/them
dat/that
Consonant cluster movement
The /sk/ consonant cluster is
transposed, becoming /ks
aks/ask
ekscape/escape
Recommendations for Teachers:
114
In the U.S., African Americans account for about 13% of the population, approximately 80% of whom
speak AAE.
115
Supporting these students in the classroom requires being aware of and leveraging their
home language, background knowledge and cultural assets, much the same as with multilingual
learners. Below are some ways to support instruction of students who speak AAE:
116
117
● Support development of children’s phonological awareness through word play activities such as
rhyming using examples from the students’ language variety. Rhymes may not be the same as in
GAE due to differences in vowel system (thing/king or rang) or deletion of final consonants
(cold/hole), so these activities may function somewhat differently than in GAE.
● Implement Elkonin boxes for phonological awareness exercises: These boxes offer valuable
visual and auditory support to aid children and adolescents in mastering phonological
differences between the two dialects.
● Incorporate letters with phonemic awareness exercises, bringing particular attention to the
differences in how the spoken word is represented in print.
● Reading aloud is important to aid in developing fluency, but children and adolescents learning to
navigate two dialects will slow down to pronounce words correctly and read them accurately.
Comprehension can be impacted as a result. The appearance of lower proficiency can be deeply
114
Washington, Lee-James, & Standford, 2023, Teaching Phonemic and Phonological Awareness to
Children Who Speak African American English
115
Pittman, et al., 2023, The Importance of Phonemic Awareness Instruction for African American
Students
116
Washington & Seidenberg, 2021, Teaching Reading to African American Children
117
Johnson & Gatlin-Nash, 2020, Evidence-Based Reading Difficulties Among African American Learners
69
embarrassing, so careful consideration should be given when using these activities in front of
other students.
● Include books and other resources in the classroom that are culturally responsive.
● Provide, in writing, important information that has been presented orally, as well as visual
supports whenever possible.
● Familiarize yourself with AAE, a sophisticated and intricate language variety. Expand the child's
understanding of AAE to include the second dialect, GAE, which serves as the language used in
books.
● Acquire knowledge about general oral language development and AAE.
● Support the development of vocabulary and language skills in students.
● Focus not only on decoding skills but also on fostering the development of larger text units, such
as sentences and paragraphs.
● Encourage the development of deep reading skills by providing ample opportunities for students
to read, particularly rich and culturally relatable books.
● Be sensitive to the time needed for children and adolescents to master new language skills,
while remaining vigilant that students make adequate progress through the year.
● Explicitly infuse oral language skills in literacy instruction to boost reading performance.
● Take advantage of opportunities to learn about culturally appropriate teaching strategies (e.g.,
dialect-informed instruction and culturally responsive teaching) and utilize them in the
classroom.
Screening and Assessment
As educators screen, assess and provide appropriate reading interventions for students, it is important
to be able to identify the difference between a linguistic feature of a student’s dialect and a potential
sign of a reading difficulty so as not to over-identify students potentially needing intervention. For
example, vowel sounds between dialects can differ, which would impact which words rhyme
(phonological awareness). Another example is the ability to correctly identify if two words end in the
same sound as final consonants are typically deleted, as in AAE (phonemic awareness). Similarly, it is
important not to make assumptions about students based on their cultural or linguistic background as
that may potentially lead to under-identification or over-identification of language difficulties.
Additional considerations for screening and assessment of language difficulties are as follows:
118
● Students may use their dialect or language variation during screening and assessment;
therefore, the practitioner should learn about the characteristics of that dialect or language
variation to determine language differences versus possible disorders.
● When available, use standardized assessments that accommodate language variation in their
scoring.
● Consider the student’s background knowledge when assessing vocabulary and reading
comprehension skills and its impact on performance.
118
Johnson & Gatlin-Nash, 2020, Evidence-Based Reading Difficulties Among African American Learners
70
After all pertinent information is considered and it has been determined that a student has more than
just language differences, further information should be collected. Like the process for identifying
dyslexia in English speakers, evaluations may be done regarding foundational reading skills such as
phonological awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. The difference in these
assessments is that whenever possible, they should be administered by someone who is fluent in the
home language or language variation and given in the student’s home language or language variation.
Research over many decades has determined that virtually all children and adolescents can be taught to
read with direct, explicit, systematic instruction. This is true regardless of cultural background, linguistic
background, race, or economic status. Educator knowledge in effective instructional techniques and in
the cultural and linguistic backgrounds of their students is key to developing successful readers and
writers.
Students who are Twice Exceptional (2e)
Twice Exceptional (2e) students are those who possess both a learning challenge such as dyslexia,
dysgraphia, dyscalculia, ADHD, or autism spectrum disorder, and exceptional or gifted abilities in some
area. According to the International Dyslexia Association, approximately 2-5% of school-age children and
adolescents fall into this category, with some reports indicating even higher numbers.
These learners exhibit high levels of thinking, reasoning, and problem-solving abilities, yet also require
special education support due to their learning challenges. It is common for 2e students to utilize their
strengths in oral language and knowledge to compensate for weak decoding, encoding, and oracy skills,
making it challenging to recognize dyslexia. Unfortunately, the interplay between their giftedness and
special needs often leads to misconceptions and these students may be unfairly labeled as “lazy” or
“unmotivated.”
One of the complexities in supporting 2e students within the educational environment is that their high
cognitive abilities can mask their deficits, and vice versa, making it difficult to identify and address their
unique needs effectively. Consequently, they may struggle to have either of their exceptionalities fully
recognized and supported, despite their remarkable compensatory skills.
Characteristics commonly observed in 2e individuals, as identified by the International Dyslexia
Association, include:
● Superior oral vocabulary,
● Advanced ideas and opinions,
● High levels of creativity and problem-solving ability,
● Intense curiosity, imagination, and inquisitiveness,
● Discrepancy between verbal and performance skills,
● Clear peaks and valleys in cognitive test profiles,
● Diverse range of interests not necessarily related to school,
● Specific talents or a consuming interest in a particular area, and
● A sophisticated sense of humor.
Recognizing and supporting the unique strengths and challenges of 2e students is crucial to enabling
them to learn and thrive according to their aptitudes as well as developing positive social and emotional
health. Following are ways that teachers and administrators can support 2e students:
71
● Learn as much as possible about 2e students as well as those students with complex student
profiles and don’t just focus on one area only.
● Advocate for professional development and creating a school culture that is inclusive of all kids
who identify as dyslexic on the whole spectrum of severity AND cognitive abilities.
● Realize that sometimes ADHD is confused with dyslexia: while they can co-occur, dyslexia is the
difficulty with the basics of sounds of language; ADHD impacts attention, activity and executive
functioning.
● Support differentiated direct, explicit instruction, intervention, and accommodations as needed
for ALL students.
● Reinforce students’ emotional needs.
Most of the accommodations that apply to and are discussed throughout this handbook for all students
with dyslexia apply to twice exceptional students as well:
● Do not allow a child’s high intelligence to delay or interfere with screening, diagnosis,
intervention, or accommodations.
● Grade a student based on thinking not spelling or speed.
● Monitor the amount and length of time homework is taking the student and make adjustments
as needed.
● Offer intervention in structured literacy AND challenge/accelerate a student where they need to
be challenged.
● Allow assistive technology such as audible books.
● For older students, balance academic course load with study hall and courses that do not have
large volumes of reading and writing.
● Support students in their executive function development.
● Remind all students that they are bright and reassure them privately that you are empathetic to
their challenges.
Older Students with Reading Challenges
For students in the older grades to be successful readers, they must be able to adequately decode
words, attend to vocabulary, draw on background knowledge, and comprehend various text
structures.
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120
If an older student is struggling, it is imperative to identify the skill deficit in order to
provide the correct intervention. An effective assessment plan is crucial in order to provide intervention
for older students. While a benchmark assessment, typically given 3x a year, will allow educators to see
if a student is struggling or not, it does not pinpoint the specific skill deficit. If a student seems to
struggle according to state or district normed assessments (benchmark, ORF, etc.), then further
assessment(s) should be conducted to determine if the student has a word-level recognition deficit.
Note that instead of a “bottom up” approach where students focus on foundational literacy skills first,
secondary students’ comprehension and oral reading fluency can be assessed to determine if additional
assessments are needed.
119
Biancarosa & Snow, 2006, Reading Next
120
Snow, 2006, Reading for Understanding Toward an R&D Program in Reading Comprehension
72
Figure 10: Benchmark or Screening Flowchart
Never Too Late
For students who struggle to read, both those with dyslexia and those with other reading challenges, in
the older grades, it is vital that they have foundational literacy skills. It is never too late to remediate
these skills or for older students to learn to read. It is important, however, to consider the whole child,
their interests, understandings, and connections when intervening and remediating. While some
materials may be geared toward elementary (juvenile pictures, stories, etc.), it is important that
teachers use their discretion to determine if materials are age appropriate. In the Toolkit, one can find
resources for teaching foundational skills to older students. Research indicates that secondary-level
students who are performing substantially below grade level are not likely to meet grade level standards
unless they have highly intensive intervention.
121
121
Honig, Diamond, & Gutlohn, 2013, Teaching Reading Sourcebook
73
Additionally, it is important that students who are
struggling with reading receive intensive
intervention outside of content area classes, ideally
with a highly trained professional. Intervention
should be provided in addition to general education
reading/writing instruction, not in place of, unless a
student has an IEP and the team has made a
different determination for service delivery.
Intervention can take place during a study hall or flex period or possibly tier one or two instruction if
flexible grouping is utilized.
Educators and interventionists should utilize assessment data to plan for instruction. If a secondary
student has a word-level deficit, then this constitutes an intensive need; thus, intervention groups
should be small, no larger than four students, with the same focus in terms of skill development.
Reading Intervention Instructional Practices for Older Students
Regardless of age, proficiency in word reading lays the foundation for successful comprehension and
fluency in reading. Below are some evidence-based strategies to use with older students in a reading
intervention setting
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.
● Teach Letter-Sound Correspondences
○ Before you can effectively improve students’ word-reading skills, it is crucial to identify
their current level of proficiency. Administer a diagnostic assessment to pinpoint areas
of weakness in sound-letter correspondence such as the CORE Phonics Survey or the
Quick Phonics Screener. Tailor your instruction to meet individual student needs. For
students struggling with specific sound-letter correspondences, provide targeted
teaching and reteaching until the concept has been mastered.
● Decode Multisyllabic Words
○ Multisyllabic words can be daunting. Teach students a systematic routine for decoding
these words. Encourage students to identify prefixes, suffixes, and vowel combinations
within multisyllabic words. This approach will empower them to break down complex
words into manageable segments.
● Embed Spelling Instruction
○ Integrate spelling instruction into reading intervention lessons. While teaching sound-
letter correspondences, have students actively engage by encoding, or spelling words
that utilize the specific sound-letter relationships that are being explicitly taught. This
practice can encompass both monosyllabic and multisyllabic words, reinforcing their
understanding and retention.
● Practice Reading with Accuracy and Automaticity
○ Reading accuracy and automaticity are crucial for developing fluent readers. Dedicate
ample time to activities that allow students to practice reading. Utilize a wide variety of
engaging exercises such as partner reading, echo reading, choral reading, or maze
reading. Gradually, this will build their accuracy, automaticity, and confidence.
122
National Center for Education Evaluation, 2022, Providing Reading Interventions for Students in
Grades 4-9
74
● Implement Fluency-Building Activities
○ Boosting reading fluency is a key component in becoming a skilled reader. Incorporate
purposeful fluency-building activities into reading intervention lessons. This can include
repeated readings of the same text or reader’s theater. These exercises will support
students in reading more smoothly, expressively, and with greater comprehension.
● Integrate Comprehension-Building Practices
○ Integrate comprehension-building practices to enable students to make sense of the
text effectively. Emphasize the importance of vocabulary through explicit instruction &
teaching morphology, background knowledge, asking & answering questions, and
monitoring comprehension as students read.
Reader Behavior(s)
For students with dyslexia, motivation alone will not teach them to read. Older students are skilled at
masking reading difficulties. Oftentimes, one might see these students carry around multiple books from
the library or they might sit quietly and “read” during silent reading time. On the other hand, some older
students who struggle with reading might exhibit unwanted behaviors out of frustration or avoidance.
Consider the students who ask to go to the bathroom or joke and chat excessively with classmates or
demonstrate generally distracting behaviors when it is time to read or write. When providing
intervention and/or remediation for older students, it is important to consider the following:
Create Trust & Respect
Older struggling readers have experienced years of academic failure with the thought that they
would have been taught to learn to read by this point in time. Creating trust can look as simple
as providing explicit expectations for intervention, following through on what you ask and/or say
you will do, and simply by being honest and transparent with your students. Build in time to get
to know each of your students. Acknowledge their behavior, but avoid labeling it as “bad,”
“lazy,” or “unmotivated.”
Acknowledge Their Feelings & Provide Opportunities for Management
Older struggling readers are likely to have many feelings – feelings of distrust, frustration,
sadness, and/or anger. It is important to validate their feelings but also to provide opportunities
to talk about their feelings and reinforce your commitment to helping them. If students are
feeling frustrated, allow them to get a drink of water, explicitly teach and practice deep
breathing, squeezing all the muscles in their body, etc. Connect with other service providers in
your building such as the social worker, counselor, and/or school psychologist to collaborate.
Goal Set
Work with students to set short-term goals with manageable steps. In this way, students are
aware of their goals and can track their progress over time. Once they experience success
through meeting a goal, regardless of how small, they will experience a sense of
accomplishment which can help support their self-esteem and motivation.
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Table 8: Checklist for Implementing Intensive Intervention
Checklist to Develop a Plan for Implementing Intensive Intervention
(Adapted from Effective Instruction for Middle School Students with Reading Difficulties,
2012)
• Identify who will provide intensive intervention (reading teacher, special education
teacher, other well-qualified teacher).
● Decide when, where, and how often the intensive intervention will be provided.
● Identify and secure an evidence-based, explicit, systematic program(s) to be used to
provide intervention.
● Clarify the relationship of intensive intervention with Section 504 and special
education services.
● Put in place a system for monitoring the progress of students in intensive
intervention between two and four times a month to help guide instruction.
● Establish criteria for entry and exit from intensive intervention.
● Clarify how assessment data can be used to plan targeted instruction and make
adaptations to ensure students meet grade-level benchmarks and/or objectives.
● Establish a space and a place for problem solving and decision making related to
intensive intervention.
● Provide time for collaboration among intervention teachers.
● Ensure that intensive intervention teachers receive quality professional
development emphasizing scientific evidence-based programs and practices in
teaching students with reading difficulties.
● Provide ongoing support for intensive intervention teachers.
The Role of Related Service Professionals
Related service personnel should be aware of the risk profiles and the signs and symptoms of dyslexia in
their various roles and responsibilities. Speech-Language Pathologists are often the first related service
professionals to serve students at risk for dyslexia. It is reported that as many as 40-75% of children and
adolescents with a specific language impairment will have problems in learning to read.
123
As students
move through school and reading/writing expectations increase, students with dyslexia struggle to meet
curricular demands and are negatively impacted by poor and labored decoding skills for more dense and
complex texts. Early and correct assessment and identification of students with dyslexia is crucial.
Fletcher & Lyon found that 74% of children who perform poorly in reading in 3rd grade continue to do
123
Spear-Swerling, 2006, Specific Language Impairment
76
so in high school.
124
The struggle and confusion associated with an undiagnosed reading disability will
often manifest in poor self-esteem and possibly behavior issues within the school setting. It is
imperative that related service personnel review their individual professional areas of observation and
evaluation to include the potential impact on a student’s reading and writing skills.
The appropriate intervention through RtI/MTSS tiers or in the IEP development process relies on
assessment data. It is therefore necessary that those assessments are, among other things, valid,
reliable, administered without discrimination, and in a language and form most likely to yield accurate
information for that specific student. The Team’s discussion and review should extend from assessment
results to the impact dyslexia has on a student’s daily experience at school. Collaboration is essential for
effective IEP development especially since the purpose of related services is to build skills that will allow
students with an IEP to access and benefit from their special education services. Rich input from
families, related service providers, and general educators (including MLL teachers), on the individualized
design of accommodations, modifications, supplementary aids and services, and annual IEP goals or 504
plans is important for supporting areas of disability-related needs within all environments.
Related service providers should use their professional assessment tools to fully understand a student’s
skills and the impact of processing on academic performance, specifically as they relate to reading,
writing, and math. Curriculum-based measures do not always account for the impact of skills and
processing; rather, they provide insight as to how a student is progressing in various academic areas.
Specifically, for SLPs who often have extensive expertise in the language area, the following chart can
provide assessment guidance
125
:
Table 8: Areas of Assessment
Areas to Assess
Modalities involved
Phonological Awareness – an individual’s awareness of
and access to the sound structure of his/her oral
language
● Auditory
● Auditory Discrimination
● Segmentation of sounds/phonemes
● Blending of sounds/phonemes
Phonological or Language-Based Memory – ability to
recall sounds, syllables, words
● Auditory
● Visual-Auditory
● Auditory Short-Term Memory
Rapid Automatic Naming – speed of naming objects,
colors, digits, or letters
● Time
● Efficiency of recall
124
Fletcher & Lyon, 1998, Reading: A Research Based Approach
125
Lowell, 2020, Dyslexia Assessment: What Is It and How Can It Help
77
Receptive Vocabulary – understanding of words heard
● Vocabulary
● Listening/Language Comprehension
Phonics Skills – understanding of the symbol (letter) to
the sound(s) relationship, either individually or in
combination with other letters
● Symbol Recognition
● Visual-Auditory
● Memory / Recall
Decoding – ability to use symbol-sound associations to
identify (read – pronounce) words.
● Real Words
● Nonsense Words
● Symbol Recognition
● Symbol-Sound Recognition
● Word Identification
● Segmentation of Letter-sounds
● Blending of Letter-sounds
Oral Reading Fluency – ability to read accurately, at a
story-telling pace – to facilitate/ support
comprehension.
● Silent Reading Fluency - TSWRF
● Single Words
● Sentences and Paragraphs
● Decodable words
● Grade level words
● Following of sequence and directions
● Oral language
● Syntactical level
Spelling
● Segmentation of Sounds
● Orthographic Patterns
● Syllabication
● Morphology - including suffixing rules
Transcription Skills
● Handwriting - letter/number
formation
● Copying
● Keyboarding
● Tracing
Writing - Sentence Level
● Sentence Construction Knowledge and
Exposure
● Oral Language
● Syntactic Structure
● Listening/Comprehension Skills
● Executive Functioning
Writing - Paragraph Level
● Oral Language
● Receptive Language
● Syntactic Structure
78
● Narrative Language Skills
● Memory
● Executive Functioning
In addition to Speech-Language Pathologists, there are other Related Service Professionals who may
support students with dyslexia in the school setting—specifically those students with SLDs who qualify
for an IEP. Social workers, Occupational Therapists, and other types of specialists or interventionists
may provide consultation to teachers and/or direct services to students.
Addressing Social-Emotional Concerns
It is important that related service personnel document student behaviors observed during the
administration of their assessments. The review of reading, writing, curricular samples, behaviors, and
social-emotional actions and reactions should be included as part of the social emotional domain. The
reading and writing demands and a student’s response to the task demand(s) are an important indicator
of the student’s social-emotional state. The antecedent of the demands is critical in reviewing and
assessment, especially when completing a Functional Assessment of Behavior. Students may act out,
avoid, or display other various behaviors due to frustration, embarrassment, or as a response to
negative self-image, due to possible years of struggle. The results of a student’s anxiety may also
include physical symptoms due to the student’s internalization of their emotional state.
Each student’s social and educational history should also include information from the parent and
previous educational records regarding previous home and school social-emotional and behavioral
responses. In addition, it is integral that all professionals communicate effectively and work
collaboratively to address the needs of the whole child.
Providing Transition Services for Students with Dyslexia
If a student with dyslexia receives services through an IEP in high school, then the school is required
yearly to develop and evaluate a formal written plan for the transition from high school to the next
phase of their life, whether that includes employment, post-secondary education, or military service, by
the age of 14 and a half in Illinois. For students receiving services under a 504 plan, the multi-
disciplinary team developing and reviewing the 504 plan should, in collaboration with the family and
student, consider if transition planning and services are necessary for the student to be successful after
high school. If it is determined they are necessary, then the team should include these services in the
504 plan. Regardless, the high school student with dyslexia should apply for and secure appropriate
accommodations for “high stakes testing” such as the PSAT, SAT, ACT, etc. Documentation including a
description of the student’s disability, reading and writing skills, and the accommodations used by the
student will be needed.
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Moats & Darkin, 2008, Basic Facts About Dyslexia and Other Reading Problems
79
If an individual is planning to move to a post-secondary educational setting, they may be able to access
some accommodations through the institution’s disability services program. Although their IEP or 504
plan does not follow a student into the new institution, these plans can be used to document the
disability and need for services and to discuss which accommodations may be suitable in a higher
education setting. Not all accommodations that were provided in high school may be suitable for post-
secondary education, and these institutions are only required to provide services which are deemed
necessary to ensure the student is not discriminated against based on their disability. Additionally,
considerations must be made to ensure accommodations do not compromise the overall quality and
rigor of the post-secondary education program. Secondary educators can support students and families
in these transitions by facilitating an initial contact with that institution or providing families with the
contact information and some simple steps for initiating the process.
Administrators, educators, and service professionals must prepare these students to advocate for
themselves and reach out to disability services or other related agencies directly. It is important that
students understand their reading and writing skills and challenges, so they are able to work with school
professionals to determine appropriate accommodations. Specifically in higher education, this process
must be initiated by the individual seeking services, and they must be willing to regularly communicate
with and reach out to the disability service providers to ensure their needs are being met.
Also, it is important to inform students and families that after high school individuals are not required to
disclose that they have a disability or that they received services under an IEP or 504 plan. Informing
them that this information will not be reported to post-secondary institutions or employers by the
district is essential, but also acknowledging that this information is often beneficial for these
organizations to be informed by the individual so they can better understand and support them in the
workplace or educational setting is important.
80
As a 4th grade teacher, you’ve observed that several students are struggling in class. Upon reviewing
their benchmark scores from the beginning-of-year assessment, you found that they ranked between
the 10-20th percentile nationally. Recognizing the need for further evaluation, you conducted diagnostic
assessments with these students. The results revealed a common issue: they all have deficits in word
recognition, ranging from consonant-vowel-consonant (CVC) words, variant vowels, and multisyllabic
words according to the survey. You have only ever taught 4th and 5th grade before, so are unsure of the
instructional strategies to utilize with these students. You understand that these students require
targeted support in this area; however, you are unsure of what steps to take next. What do you do?
Click for Answer
• Accommodation
• Affix
• African-American
English (AAE)
• Assistive Technology
(AT)
• Base Word
• Bidialectal
• Blending
• Cajun English
• Comprehension
• Consonants
• Cumulative
Instruction
• Decodable Text
• Deletion
• Diagnostic Teaching
• Dialect
• Dialect Density
• Discourse
• Evidence-Based
• Explicit Instruction
• Expressive Language
• Fluency
• General American
English (GAE)
• Grapheme
• Gullah
• Language Domains
• Metalanguage
Awareness
• Mexican-American
English (Chicano
English)
• Modification
• Morpheme
• Morphology
• Multilingual Learners
(MLLs)
• Multimodal
• National Reading
Panel
• Oral Language
• Orthography
• Orton-Gillingham
Approach (OGA)
• Phoneme
• Phonemic Awareness
• Phonics
• Phonological
Processing
• Phonological/
Language Based
Memory
• Phonology
• Phonology Networks
• Pragmatics
• Prefix
• Rapid Automatic
Naming (RAN)
• Receptive Language
• Root
• Segmentation
• Semantics
• Southern English
• Structured Literacy
(SL)
• Suffix
• Syllable Types
• Syllables
• Syntactical Level
• Syntax
• Systematic
Instruction
• Transcription Skills
• Twice Exceptional
(2e)
• Universal Design for
Learning (UDL)
• Verbal Memory
• Vocabulary
• Vowels
• Working Memory
80
➢ Read: Structured-Literacy Instruction from the International
Dyslexia Association
➢ Listen: Research Education Advocacy (READ) Podcast with
Winward Institute
➢ Explore: The National Center on Improving Literacy website
81
Looking Forward
The information and guidance provided in this handbook is intended to enhance the knowledge of
educational professionals, school leaders, families, guardians, and students on the subject of dyslexia.
That being said, as a society, we are in an ongoing state of growth and learning. In the past decade, we
have seen significant advances in our knowledge of dyslexia from the fields of science and education; a
decade from now, we will know even more. In addition, our state has engaged in deep conversations
about reading instruction and numerous bills have been proposed that address dyslexia. In order to
ensure that this handbook continues to be a beneficial source of information, it will be under constant
revision with updates being released periodically. Hopefully, by educating and empowering all who are
impacted by dyslexia with the most up-to-date research, the uncertainty surrounding the disorder can
be reduced and we can continue to make a difference in the lives of those diagnosed.
82
Bridge to Practice – Scenarios with Answers
83
84
85
86
References
2.2 common myths about dyslexia. (2020, December 10). Colorado Department of Education.
https://www.cde.state.co.us/node/43703
Albers, C. A., & Hall, G. J. (2023). Best practices for universal screening in schools. In Best Practices in
School psychology: Data Based and Collaborative Decision Making (pp. 91–104). National
Association of School Psychologists.
Alexander, E., Flipse, J., Hirschmann, M., Farris, E., & Odegard, T. (2023). Understanding dyslexia: A guide
for Tennessee families. Middle Tennessee State University.
https://www.mtsu.edu/dyslexia/documents/publications/UnderstandingDyslexia_AGuideforTen
nesseeFamilies.pdf
American Institutes for Research. (2022). Essential components of MTSS. Mtss4success.org; Center on
Multi-Tiered Systems of Support. https://mtss4success.org/essential-components
Berninger, V. W. (2020). Understanding dysgraphia. International Dyslexia Association.
https://app.box.com/s/ew9gmxm2r63hrnhfshkr
Berninger, V. W., Richards, T. L., & Abbott, R. D. (2015). Differential diagnosis of dysgraphia, dyslexia,
and OWL LD: Behavioral and neuroimaging evidence. Reading and Writing, 28(8), 1119–1153.
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Glossary
Accommodation
Accommodations are changes to how content is delivered to a student,
or the materials that are used during instruction.
Affix
A letter or group of letters attached to the beginning or ending of a base
word or root that creates a derivative with a meaning or grammatical
form that is different from the base word or root.
African-American English
(AAE)
A legitimate and systematic linguistic variety spoken by many African
Americans.
Americans with Disabilities
Act (ADA)
The Americans with Disabilities Act, first enacted in 1990 and then
updated in 2008, prohibits unjustified discrimination based on disability.
It is meant to level the playing field for people with disabilities, including
those who are dyslexic.
Angular Gyrus &
Supramarginal Gyrus
The part of the brain that is used to connect letters to form words for
reading aloud.
Assistive Technology (AT)
An item, piece of equipment, or product that is used to increase,
maintain, or improve the functional capabilities of individuals with
disabilities.
Attention Deficit
Hyperactivity Disorder
(ADHD)
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is the most common
type of neurodevelopmental disorder in children and adolescents. ADHD
is when a person exhibits a pattern of inattention or impulsivity.
Oftentimes people with ADHD display characteristics including being
unable to sit still, fidgeting, lack of focus, excessive talking or moving,
and being impulsive.
Automaticity
The ability to respond or react without attention or conscious effort.
Automaticity in word recognition permits full energy to be focused on
comprehension.
Base Word
A word to which affixes are added.
Bidialectal
Speakers are often referred to as those who speak a variety of English in
addition to General American English (GAE).
Blending
Putting together the sounds in spoken words.
Cajun English
A variety of English spoken by many Cajuns in Louisiana. Cajun English
may exhibit linguistic features influenced by French, as well as unique
features that are characteristic of the Cajun community.
Central Auditory
Processing Disorder
Individuals with Central Auditory Processing Disorder (CAPD) have
deficits in skills related to auditory attention, discrimination, analysis,
synthesis, association, and organization. Oftentimes, this disorder
94
manifests in several ways, including difficulty understanding in noisy
environments, trouble hearing in groups, difficulty following directions
or needs frequent repetition, seems to hear but not understand, history
of ear infections, distractible, speech and language problems, poor
localizations skills, and problems in phonics, reading, spelling, and
written language.
Comorbid Conditions
There is a continuum of neurologically based disorders that are
frequently found together. The basic concept is that if something
impacts on the developing brain, resulting in an area or system being
“wired differently,” it is possible that other areas might be involved as
well.
Comprehension
Making sense of what we read. Comprehension depends on good word
recognition, fluency, vocabulary, worldly knowledge, and language
ability.
Consonants
One class of speech sounds in which sound moving through the vocal
tract is constricted or obstructed by the lips, tongue, or teeth during
articulation.
Cumulative Instruction
Describes instruction that is presented in a sequence that begins with
the simplest skills and concepts and progresses systematically to the
more difficult.
Data-Based Decision
Making
The process of using data (e.g., progress monitoring data) to make
instructional decisions.
Decodable Text
Text that is written at the independent reading level of a student; for the
text to be decodable the student should be able to read 95-100% of the
words independently, with no more than 1 error per 20 words.
Decoding
To break the phonic code (to recognize a word); to determine the
pronunciation of a word by noting the position of the vowels and
consonants).
Deletion
Leaving out sounds in spoken words.
Developmental Language
Disorder (DLD)
Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) is a communication disorder
that interferes with learning, understanding, and using language. These
language difficulties are not explained by other conditions, such as
hearing loss or autism, or by extenuating circumstances, such as lack of
exposure to language. DLD can affect a child’s speaking, listening,
reading, and writing. DLD has also been called specific language
impairment, language delay, or developmental dysphasia.
Diagnostic Literacy
Assessment
An assessment that measures a specific skill acquisition.
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Diagnostic Teaching
Pertaining to instruction in which the teacher is constantly taking notice
of how students are handling the lesson concepts.
Dialect
Refers to a version of a language spoken by a group of people
distinguished by characteristics such as race, ethnicity, religion, and/or
geographic region.
Dialect Density
The extent to which a student’s oral language variety differs from that of
print.
Discourse
Discourse refers to the ability to use and understand language in
extended contexts, such as in conversations, stories, and narratives.
Domain
Area(s) in which students can have strengths and/or weaknesses.
Double Deficit
Both a deficit in phonological awareness and naming speed.
Dyscalculia
Dyscalculia is a learning disorder where people have difficulty in the area
of mathematics. If someone were to have dyscalculia, they may have
difficulty counting and reading numbers, memorizing and applying basic
math facts, estimating speed, distance, or time, and counting money.
Dysgraphia
Dysgraphia refers to unusual difficulty with handwriting, which
sometimes affects students' spelling, but not their word reading,
decoding, and spelling unless they have co-occurring dyslexia (Berninger,
Richards, & Abbott, 2015; Berninger & Wolf, 2016). Oftentimes, people
with dysgraphia struggle to form letters correctly or have handwriting
that is illegible. They may also find it difficult to copy information.
Dyslexia
Specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. Dyslexia is
characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word
recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties
typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language
that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the
provision of effective classroom instruction. Secondary consequences
may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading
experience that can impede growth of vocabulary and background
knowledge.
Dyspraxia
Dyspraxia is a learning disorder where a person has difficulties with
motor skills and coordination. Dyspraxia is shown in both physical
movement and forming sounds. People with dyspraxia may find it
difficult to play at recess when trying to run, jump, hop, or kick a ball.
They also may find it difficult using facial muscles to form certain sounds
or words.
Encoding
The process of breaking a spoken word into each of its individual sounds
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Evaluation
A more complex process used to determine whether a child qualifies for
special education.
Every Student Succeeds
Act (ESSA)
Enacted in December of 2015, the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA)
aims to “provide all children significant opportunity to receive a fair,
equitable, and high-quality education” as well as to “close educational
achievement gaps.” The legislation requires that each state create a plan
for its schools ensuring an equitable education for all students,
especially students in poverty, students of color, students who receive
special education services, and students with limited English language
proficiency. Schools must account for academic standards, annual
testing, school accountability, goals in academic achievement, plans for
supporting and improving struggling schools, and state and local report
cards in their plans. In this law, ESSA includes provisions that are meant
to help students with disabilities, including students with dyslexia,
receive a more impactful education. Included are provisions specifically
designed to improve literacy instruction including requiring evidence-
based strategies to effectively teach reading and writing to students with
learning disabilities, including dyslexia, and resources to identify and
intervene when students are struggling in reading.
Evidence-Based
Programs that are supported by strong, moderate, or promising
empirical research evidence of their effectiveness.
Executive Functioning
Executive functioning encompasses seven larger skills: adaptable
thinking, planning, self-monitoring, self-control, working memory, time
management, and organization.
Explicit Instruction
Explicit instruction is instruction that is systematic, direct, engaging, and
success oriented.
Expressive Language
Speaking and writing.
Fluency
Reading words at an adequate rate, with a high level of accuracy,
appropriate expression and understanding.
Frontal Lobe
The part of the brain that is responsible for generating speech sounds,
aiding in pronouncing written words. It manages various speech
functions such as reading fluency, understanding and applying grammar,
and producing speech.
General American English
(GAE)
Also known as Standard American English or General American, as a
standardized accent of American English. It is considered a neutral or
non-regional accent that is commonly used in broadcasting and in formal
settings in the United States. General American English is not associated
with any particular region or dialect and is often used as a reference
point for teaching English pronunciation.
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Grammar
The system and arrangement of words, phrases, and clauses that make
up a sentence.
Grapheme
Written letter or letter combination.
Gullah
A variety of English spoken by many African Americans in the Sea Islands
and coastal regions of South Carolina and Georgia, as well as in some
other parts of the southeastern United States. Gullah is a distinct
linguistic variety with its own grammar, vocabulary, and phonological
features. It has its roots in West African languages and English, with
influences from other languages as well.
High-Stakes Testing
Any test used to make important decisions about students, educators,
schools, or districts.
Illinois Assessment of
Readiness (IAR)
The Illinois Assessment of Readiness (IAR) is the state assessment and
accountability measure for Illinois students enrolled in a public school
district. IAR assesses the Illinois Learning Standards incorporating the
Common Core and is administered in English language arts and
mathematics to all students in grades 3-8.
Individualized Education
Program (IEP)
A plan that describes the special education instruction, supports, and
services that students with disabilities are legally entitled to receive.
Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA)
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, enacted in 1975 under a
different name and then updated as IDEA in 1990 and updated most
recently in 2015, is designed to ensure that students with a disability are
provided a “Free Appropriate Public Education” tailored to their
individual needs. One of the law’s pillars is that students with a disability
are entitled to an Individualized Education Program, or IEP, that clearly
delineates the services to be provided. The law indicates 13 different
categories to define students with a disability who should be guaranteed
a free and appropriate public education. One of those 13 is the category
of “special learning disability,” within which dyslexia is cited as an
example. Additionally, in 2015, The Office of Special Education Programs
(OSEP) released a memo that provided policy guidance on IDEA/IEP
terms to clarify that there is nothing in the IDEA that would prohibit the
use of the terms dyslexia, dyscalculia, and dysgraphia in IDEA evaluation,
eligibility determinations or IEP documents.
Language Comprehension
Making meaning of something that is heard.
Language Domains
Morphology, syntax, semantics, phonology, and pragmatics
Learning Disorder
A learning disorder is present when the brain takes in and works with
information in a way that is not typical. It keeps a person from learning a
skill and using it well. People with learning disorders by and large have
average or above-average intelligence. So, there's a gap between their
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expected skills, based on age and intelligence, and how they do in
school.
Metalanguage Awareness
Metalanguage awareness refers to an individual's ability to recognize,
understand, and use language to talk about language. It involves the
capacity to reflect on and discuss the structures, rules, and functions of
language itself. This includes recognizing parts of speech, understanding
syntax and grammar, and being able to analyze and discuss linguistic
elements.
Mexican-American English
(Chicano English)
A variety of English spoken by many Mexican Americans in the United
States. This variety of English may exhibit linguistic features influenced
by Spanish, as well as unique features that are characteristic of Chicano
communities.
Modification
A modification is a change to what a student is taught or expected to do
in school.
Morpheme
The smallest meaningful linguistic unit.
Morphology
The internal structure of the meaningful units within words and the
relationships among words in a language. The study of word formation
patterns.
Multi-Tier Service Delivery
Model
A model in which in which each tier represents increasingly intense
services that are associated with increasing levels of learner needs.
Multi-Tier Systems of
Support (MTSS)
A proactive and preventative framework that integrates data and
instruction to maximize student achievement and support students'
social, emotional, and behavior needs from a strengths-based
perspective.
Multilingual Learners
(MLLs)
Individuals who are learning an additional language or languages.
Multimodal
Improving multiple sensory pathways. Engaging visual, auditory, and
kinesthetic/tactile senses.
Naming Speed Deficit
A deficit in naming and processing speed which allows us to focus on the
automaticity of retrieval.
National Reading Panel
The National Reading Panel (NRP) was convened by Congress in 1997 to
determine the effectiveness of different approaches used to teach
children and adolescents to read. The panel was made up of 14 people
including scientists in reading research, college representatives,
educators, educational administrators, and parents.
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Occipital Temporal Region
The part of the brain that is used for storing word appearances and
meanings (letter-word recognition, automaticity and comprehension),
vital for quick and fluent reading.
Oral Language
A spoken system of words with rules for their use that includes listening
and speaking.
Oral Reading Fluency (ORF)
ORF involves having students read aloud from an unpracticed passage
for one minute. An examiner notes any errors made (words read or
pronounced incorrectly, omitted, read out of order, or words
pronounced for the student by the examiner after a 3-second pause) and
then calculates the total of words read correctly per minute (WCPM).
This WCPM score has 30 years of validation research conducted over
three decades, indicating it is a robust indicator of overall reading
development throughout the primary grades.
Orthographic Mapping
The process readers use to store written words for immediate, effortless
retrieval. It is the means by which readers turn unfamiliar written words
into familiar, instantaneously accessible sight words.
Orthography
The study of the written system of language.
Orton-Gillingham
Approach (OGA)
A multisensory method of teaching language-related academic skills that
focuses on the structure and use of sounds, syllables, words, sentences,
and written discourse. Instruction is explicit, systematic, cumulative,
direct, and sequential.
Outcome Measure
A state-mandated assessment to tell if students are reaching sufficient
levels of achievement.
Parietal-Temporal Region
The part of the brain that is used in breaking down written words into
sounds (word analysis).
Phoneme
The smallest unit of speech that makes a word distinguishable from
another in the system of a spoken language.
Phonemic Awareness
The ability to manipulate speech sounds in words.
Phonics
The paired association between letters and sounds.
Phonological Awareness
The ability to consciously manipulate (play with) rhymes, syllables, and
phonemes (speech sounds) in words.
Phonological Core Deficit
A deficit in the phonological system in language which is the ability to
process and manipulate phonemes (sounds).
Phonological Component
Pertaining to sounds and sound patterns in a language.
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Phonological Processing
The ability to perceive, understand, and use the sound of structures of
words in both oral and written language.
Phonological/Language
Based Memory
The ability to immediately process and recall sound-based information in
short-term memory of temporary storage.
Phonology
The science of speech sounds, including the study of the development of
speech sounds in one language or the comparison of speech sound
development across different languages.
Phonology Networks
Networks within the brain that are devoted to speech sounds.
Pragmatics
Set of rules that dictates behavior to communicative intentions in a
particular context and the rules of conversation or discourse.
Prefix
An affix attached to the beginning of a word that changes the meaning
of the word.
Progress Monitoring
An assessment to determine if a student who’s receiving instruction is
making progress and it informs decisions about when to exit a skill and
which skill to address next.
Rapid Automatic Naming
(RAN)
A speed naming task, most often administered to prereaders, in which
the individual is asked to quickly name a series of printed letters,
numbers, or blocks of color repeated in random order.
Receptive Language
Listening and reading.
Response to Intervention
(RTI)
A method of responding to student needs to reduce both academic and
behavioral difficulties before they become a barrier to student success.
Root
A morpheme to which affixes can be added.
Screening
A brief, informal test(s) used to provide a quick way to determine
whether further, more in-depth assessment (testing) is needed.
Section 504 of the
Rehabilitation Act of 1973
Section 504 covers qualified students with disabilities who attend
schools receiving Federal financial assistance. To be protected under
Section 504, a student must be determined to: (1) have a physical or
mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life
activities; or (2) have a record of such an impairment; or (3) be regarded
as having such an impairment. Section 504 requires that school districts
provide FAPE to qualified students in their jurisdictions who have a
physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more
major life activities. Major life activities, as defined in the Section 504
regulations at 34 C.F.R. 104.3(j)(2)(ii), include functions such as caring for
oneself, performing manual tasks, walking, seeing, hearing, speaking,
breathing, learning, and working. While this list is not exhaustive,
reading and/or writing could fall under the function of “learning,” and
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thus students struggling in those areas would be protected if their
challenges substantially limit major life activities.
Segmentation
Taking apart the sounds in spoken words.
Semantics
Semantics is the aspect of language concerned with meaning. Meaning is
conveyed both by single words and by phrases and sentences.
Sight Word
A word that is immediately recognized as a whole and does not require
decoding to identify.
Southern English
A broad term that encompasses various regional dialects and accents
spoken in the southern United States. These dialects may include
features such as distinctive pronunciation patterns, vocabulary, and
grammatical structures that are characteristic of the Southern linguistic
variety.
Special Education
Specially designed instruction, at no cost to parents, to meet the unique
needs of a child with a disability.
Specially Designed
Instruction (SDI)
Refers to adapting, as appropriate to the needs of an eligible child, the
content, methodology, or delivery of instruction to address the unique
needs of the child that result from the child’s disability and to ensure
access of the child to the general curriculum.
Specific Learning Disability
(SLD)
A disorder in one or more of the basic processes involved in
understanding or producing spoken or written language.
Structured Literacy (SL)
A research-based approach to instruction that involves the simultaneous
use of multisensory teaching strategies.
Suffix
A morpheme attached to the end of a base word that creates a word
with a different form, use, or meaning.
Syllable Structure
Also referred to as syllable types; orthographic classifications of
syllables. In English, the six most common are: closed, open, vowel-
consonant e, vowel pair, vowel-r, and consonant-le.
Syllable Types
Orthographic classifications of syllables; There are six syllable types in
English: closed, open, vowel-consonant e, vowel pair, vowel-r, and
consonant-le.
Syllables
A spoken or written unit that has a vowel or vowel sound and may
include consonants or consonant sounds that precede or follow the
vowel. Syllables are units of sound made by one opening of the mouth
or one impulse of the voice.
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Syntactical Level
The ability to manipulate or judge word order within the context of a
sentence based on the application of grammatical rules (syntactic
awareness).
Syntax
Syntax is the system for ordering words in sentences so that meaning
can be communicated; the meaning of words and the relationship
among words as they are used to represent knowledge of the world.
Systematic Instruction
The orderly presentation of linguistic concepts based on frequency and
ease of learning in a continuous series of connected lessons or retrieving
names of things such as letters of the alphabet or the act of ordering
information.
Temporal Lobe
The part of the brain that deciphers sounds and fosters phonological
awareness, dissecting syllables, phonemes, and words.
Tier 1
Core instruction for all students.
Tier 2
Targeted interventions for some students.
Tier 3
Intensive individualized intervention for few students.
Transcription Skills
Spelling, handwriting, and/or keyboarding skills.
Twice Exception (2e)
Those who possess both a learning challenge such as dyslexia,
dysgraphia, dyscalculia, ADHD, or Autism Spectrum Disorder, and
exceptional or gifted abilities in some area.
Universal Design for
Learning (UDL)
An educational approach that concentrates on designing instructional
practices, teaching materials, and educational environments that
intends to meet the needs of all students, including those with
disabilities.
Universal Early Literacy
Screener
A brief assessment that assesses foundational literacy skills such as
phonological awareness, letter-sound knowledge, etc.
Universal Screening
A systematic process for the assessment of all students on critical
academic skills within a given grade, school building, or school district.
Verbal Memory
Verbal memory refers to the ability to encode, store, and retrieve
information that is presented in a verbal or auditory form. It involves the
processes of encoding information from speech or written language,
maintaining that information in memory, and then retrieving it when
needed.
Vocabulary
A large store of words that a person recognizes and/or uses in his or her
oral and written language for communication and comprehension.
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Vowels
A class of speech sounds produced by the easy passage of air through a
relatively open tract.
Word Recognition
The ability to read written words accurately and effortlessly.
Working Memory
The process of holding onto (i.e., short term memory) and manipulating
information.