STATUS OF MOUNTAIN LION MANAGEMENT IN NORTH DAKOTA, 2022
North Dakota Game and Fish Department
October 2022
Time Period Covered
1 July 2021 – 30 June 2022
2
SUMMARY
We used a combination of reports of occurrence, harvest locations, and hunter and trapper
questionnaires to determine the distribution of mountain lions in North Dakota. We examined
abundance of mountain lions in relation to previous years (i.e. trend information) via these
same methods, as well as previous habitat analysis and population modeling. Additionally, we
necropsied mountain lion carcasses to collect demographic and genetic information.
Necropsies indicate a small, but healthy population of mountain lions occurring in western
North Dakota.
INTRODUCTION
Historically, mountain lions (Puma concolor) once ranged over most of North Dakota, although
they were considered scarce except in the Little Missouri Badlands region (Bailey 1926).
Records indicate mountain lions disappeared from North Dakota in the early-1900s (Bailey et al.
[1914] in Young and Goldman [1946]) with the last confirmed record of a mountain lion being
harvested in 1902 along the Missouri River south of Williston (Bailey 1926). There has never
been a bounty on mountain lions in North Dakota (McKenna et al. 2004). In 1961, Adams
advised that mountain lions have the potential to show up in North Dakota, particularly the
Little Missouri Badlands region. According to Seabloom et al. (1980), there were 10 reports of
mountain lions in southwestern North Dakota between 1958 and 1980 and they felt the species
should be considered extant in the state. In 1991, after a young female mountain lion was shot
near Golva, mountain lions were classified as a “fur-bearer” in the state (North Dakota Century
Code 20.1-01). Provisions were made to allow removal of individual mountain lions for
protection of property and human safety concerns (North Dakota Century Code 20.1-07-04).
Prior to this time, mountain lions were unprotected and could be killed legally (McKenna et al.
2004). By the early-2000s, the number of reports of mountain lion occurrences documented by
the North Dakota Game and Fish Department (hereafter, NDGF) had increased such that it
became apparent there was a continued presence of mountain lions in western North Dakota
(NDGF 2006).
Currently, there is a relatively small population of mountain lions occurring in western North
Dakota. Occasionally, individual mountain lions are documented in other parts of the state
(McKenna et al. 2004, NDGF 2006, NDGF 2007, Johnson 2017). Estimates of habitat suitability
indicated that the Badlands, Missouri River Breaks, and Killdeer Mountains regions (comprising
3.6% of total state area) provide suitable habitat for mountain lions (Johnson 2017).
The first regulated hunting season for mountain lions in North Dakota occurred in 2005-2006
with a harvest limit of 5. This first hunting season was considered experimental with the goal
being to acquire biological and distributional information about the population of mountain
lions occurring in the state (NDGF 2006). The second regulated hunting season (2006-2007)
was modified to prohibit the harvest of kittens (i.e. mountain lions with visible spots) or
females accompanied by kittens. Additionally, hunters were not allowed to use dogs to pursue
mountain lions until 4 months later in the season. Changes to the 2007-2008 regulations
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included dividing the state into 2 management zones (Figure 1; Zone 1 had a harvest limit of 5,
Zone 2 had no harvest limit), no longer counting incidental or depredation removals towards
the harvest limit, and Fort Berthold Reservation (hereafter, Reservation) having a separate
harvest limit. During the 2008-2009 hunting season, the harvest limit for mountain lions in
Zone 1 was increased to 8 while the harvest limit within the Reservation was 5. The harvest
limit in Zone 1 was again increased to 10 in the 2010-2011, 14 in 2011-2012, and 21 in 2012-
2013 harvest seasons. In 2015-2016, the harvest limit within the Reservation was increased to
10. In 2016-2017, the harvest limit in Zone 1 was lowered to 15.
METHODS
Reports of mountain lion occurrence (e.g. sightings, tracks, etc.) could have been submitted to
NDGF by calling or emailing agency personnel or by filling out an online form
https://gf.nd.gov/hunting/furbearers/furbearer-observation (Figure 2). Reports were classified
as
a. Verified – Evidence available, including a carcass or live-captured mountain lion,
photograph or video, DNA analysis results, or tracks, scat, kill or attack confirmed as
being that of a mountain lion by a qualified wildlife professional.
b. Probable Unverified – No evidence available, but report, animal description, and/or
location are plausible.
c. Improbable Unverified – No evidence available and report, animal description, and/or
location are not plausible.
d. Unfounded – Evidence available which disproves the claim that it is a mountain lion,
including carcass or live-captured animal, photograph or video, DNA analysis results, or
tracks, scat, kill or attack disproved as being that of a mountain lion by a qualified
wildlife professional.
We required hunters to turn in the entire, intact carcasses of all harvested mountain lions after
they removed the pelts. Additionally, we collected data from mountain lions killed on the
Reservation, when feasible. From the mountain lion carcasses we estimated age (Anderson and
Lindzey 2000, NDGF 2018), examined reproductive tracts and stomach contents, and collected
tissue samples. We examined reproductive tracts for placental scars to determine pregnancy
rates and litter sizes. We extracted an upper premolar and sent them to Matson’s Laboratory
(Manhattan, Montana, USA) to confirm age via counts of cementum annuli.
Similar to past years, in early-April 2022, we mailed a questionnaire to individuals who bought
either a furbearer or combination license for the 2021-2022 harvest season (Tucker 2022). We
asked hunters to indicate the number of days spent pursuing mountain lions and number of
individual mountain lions they harvested. However, last year we began making significant
changes to our harvest questionnaire including, an in-depth evaluation of the harvest metrics
we report from this survey, and evaluation of paper versus electronic survey delivery methods.
As such, we will resume reporting the results from this survey after we complete our
evaluations.
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In 2021, we included in a survey to a random sample of deer hunters a question asking whether
they saw any mountain lions while hunting deer (Stillings and Jensen 2021). We summarized
visual observations of mountain lions by deer hunting unit.
To estimate trends in abundance of mountain lion in North Dakota, we analyzed age-at-harvest
and radio-collar data using statistical population reconstruction (SPR; Johnson 2017, Johnson et
al. 2019). We updated the SPR model to include age-at-harvest data from the 2021-2022
season.
Our SPR model assumes that known age mountain lions included in the data set were produced
from our breeding population in the Badlands region. However, we felt we may be violating
this assumption by including individuals in the model from Zone 2, as these mountain lions are
generally dispersing subadults. Therefore, we sent tissue samples from all mountain lion
mortalities having occurred in Zone 2 to the National Genomic Center for Wildlife and Fish
Conservation at the USFS Rocky Mountain Research Station (Missoula, Montana, USA) to
conduct genetic population assignments. Population assignments are reported as a probability
that a mountain lion is from a particular population based the available genetic database
(Ortloff et al. 2019). Those mountain lions that had a high probability (≥60%) assigned to a
population other than North Dakota were subsequently removed from our SPR model analysis.
RESULTS
From 1 July 2021-30 June 2022, we recorded 53 reports of mountain lions (Table 1; Figures 3-4).
Of those, 13 reports (25%) were classified as Verified (Table 2, Figures 4-5). This was 33%
higher than the number of reports of mountain lions compared to the previous year. The
Verified reports consisted of 62% carcasses (i.e. mountain lions harvested during the regulated
hunting season, dispatched for protection of property, or killed by automobiles), 31%
photographs or videos, and 7% mountain lion signs (i.e. tracks, scat, kills, or scrapes; Table 2).
Similar to past years, the distribution of Verified mountain lion reports occurred primarily in
western North Dakota, particularly the northern Badlands region (Figure 5).
The hunting season for mountain lions opened on 3 September 2021. Zone 1 had a harvest
limit, whereas Zone 2 had no harvest limit and remained open for hunting until 31 March 2022.
In Zone 1, the harvest limit was split between consecutive early- (3 September 2021-21
November 2021) and late-seasons (22 November 2021-31 March 2022). Zone 1 early-season
harvest limit was 8 and the late-season harvest limit was 7 total or 3 females, whichever came
first, for a combined harvest limit of 15 in Zone 1. Hunters could use dogs to pursue mountain
lions only in the late-season. The harvest limit for the early-season was not reached prior to 21
November 2021, therefore 5 days after the late-season harvest limit was reached, a conditional
season opened in Zone 1 to allow additional mountain lion harvest until the early-season
harvest limit was reached or 31 March 2022, whichever came first. Use of dogs to pursue
mountain lions was prohibited during the conditional season.
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The early-season in Zone 1 closed on the last day of the season with 1 female mountain lion
being harvested (Table 3; Figure 6). The late-season in Zone 1 closed on 27 February 2022 after
the harvest limit of females was met, with a total of 6 mountain lions being harvested (3 F, 3
M). A conditional season opened on 6 March 2022, but no more mountain lions were taken
before closing on 31 March 2022. Additionally, 1 male mountain lion was legally harvested in
Zone 2. Therefore, the total legal harvest consisted of 4 females and 4 males.
Internal examination of mountain lion carcasses indicated mountain lions in North Dakota are
generally healthy. Majority of mountain lion carcasses we examined were in good nutritional
condition; fat content observed during necropsy was at or above expected levels and parasite
loads were low. The sex ratio of mountain lion carcasses examined from 1 July 2021-30 June
2022 was 1 female per male and age was 2.6 ± 1.2 (𝑥̅ ± SD) years. In comparison, the sex ratio
of all mountain lion carcasses we have examined to date in North Dakota (n = 260) was 1.2
females per male and mean age was 2.8 ± 2.3 years.
Responses from the deer hunter questionnaire resulted in <1% of people indicating they saw a
mountain lion while deer hunting (Figure 7). Two of the units where mountain lions
observations were reported (4B and 4C) contained habitat considered suitable for a breeding
population of mountain lions (Johnson 2017).
We had genetic analysis conducted on a tissue sample from 1 male mountain lion from Zone 2,
to calculate a population assignment (Ortloff et al. 2019). Results indicated the mountain lion
was assigned to the North Dakota population (Figure 8). Probability of assignment was high,
95%. Subsequently, this individual was included in our SPR analysis.
Trends in annual abundance from our SPR model resulted in estimated mountain lion numbers
ranging from a low of 22 total mountain lions the past year in 2021-2022 to a high of 184 in
2011-2012 (Figure 9). The average total abundance was estimated at 71 mountain lions over
the course of 15 years.
DISCUSSION
We monitored mountain lions in North Dakota via reports of occurrence, mandatory carcass
returns, harvest surveys, and population modeling. All these methods of monitoring indicated
that mountain lion numbers were low compared to their respective peaks (Figures 4, 6, 9).
Population trends developed via statistical population reconstruction indicated that the
number of mountain lions found in Zone 1 (breeding population) peaked in 2011-2012, then
declined and has been relatively stabilize since that time (Figure 9). However, the population
trend has been declining slightly for the past two years and should be monitored closely to see
if this pattern holds true for a third year.
The report trend increased this past year but was still 75% less than the average number (n =
213) received annually during peak years of reporting from 2005-2009 (Table 1, Figure 4).
However, the high number of reports received during those peak years was likely due to the
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novelty of having a recently recolonized mountain lion population in the state and the opening
of a hunting season, as much or more so than the result of an actual peak in mountain lion
numbers. This is evidenced by looking at just Verified reports, where it appears the number has
not fluctuated nearly as much since 2005 (Table 1, Figure 4). From rigorous research and
development of population models, we know the population of mountain lions in North Dakota
has experienced some significant upward and downward trends during this timeframe, with a
peak in abundance occurring from 2010-2012 (Figure 9). Therefore, reports of occurrence
should be interpreted with caution and not be used as a true index of population trends.
The breeding population of mountain lions in North Dakota is found only in Zone 1 and within
the boundary of the Reservation. A lactating female or female accompanied by kittens has not
been confirmed in any other part of the state. Mountain lions that have dispersed out of Zone
1 or the Reservation have effectively removed themselves from the breeding population in
North Dakota. This is primarily why we do not manage mountain lions in Zone 2 with a harvest
limit, as there is no population that we are trying to sustain in that region of the state.
Although Verified reports of mountain lion occurrence are not a reliable trend index, these
reports do provide us with valuable information regarding distribution, habitat use, and travel
routes, especially those used for dispersal of mountain lions. Dispersing subadult mountain
lions, especially males, can turn up anywhere in the state during their travels. For example, in
2019-2020 there were 3 mountain lions legally taken by hunters in Zone 2, outside of the
known breeding range for the population. Mountain lion dispersal is a tendency for subadults
to move away from their natal home range to prevent inbreeding and research has shown it
occurs regardless of mountain lion density (Logan and Sweanor 2001, Thompson 2009).
Genetic analysis confirmed a majority (70%) of mountain lions killed in Zone 2 since 2006 were
not offspring from the population of mountain lions in North Dakota (Ortloff et al. 2019). This
further corroborates the ability of mountain lions to disperse long distances. Additionally, it
should caution managers before using the mere presence of dispersing individuals as any
evidence of what may be happening (e.g. high reproduction, high densities, etc.) in a nearby
breeding population.
LITERATURE CITED
Adams, A. W. 1961. Furbearers of North Dakota. North Dakota Game and Fish Department,
Bismarck, North Dakota, USA.
Anderson, C. R. Jr., and F. G. Lindzey. 2000. A photographic guide to estimating mountain lion
age classes. Wyoming Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Laramie, Wyoming,
USA.
Bailey, V. 1926. A biological survey of North Dakota. North American Fauna, No. 49. United
States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Biological Survey, Washington, D.C., USA.
7
Johnson, R. D. 2017. Mountain lion (Puma concolor) population characteristics and resource
selection in the North Dakota Badlands. Thesis, South Dakota State University, Brookings,
South Dakota, USA.
Johnson, R. D., J. A. Jenks, S. A. Tucker, and D. T. Wilckens. 2019. Mountain lion (Puma
concolor) population characteristics in the Little Missouri Badlands of North Dakota.
American Midland Naturalist 181:207-224.
Logan, K. A., and L. L. Sweanor. 2001. Desert puma: evolutionary ecology and conservation of
an enduring carnivore. Hornocker Wildlife Institute, Island Press, Washington, D.C., USA.
McKenna, M., J. Ermer, S. Hagen, S. Dyke, R. Kreil, G. Link, and M. Johnson. 2004. Mountain
lions in North Dakota: A report to the Director. North Dakota Game and Fish
Department, Bismarck, North Dakota, USA.
North Dakota Game and Fish Department. 2006. Status of mountain lions (Puma concolor) in
North Dakota: A report to the Legislative Council. North Dakota Game and Fish
Department, Bismarck, North Dakota, USA.
North Dakota Game and Fish Department. 2007. Status of mountain lion management in
North Dakota, 2007. North Dakota Game and Fish Department, Bismarck, North Dakota,
USA.
North Dakota Game and Fish Department. 2018. Mountain lions in North Dakota. North
Dakota Game and Fish Department, Bismarck, North Dakota, USA.
Ortloff, I., K. Pilgrim, and M. Schwartz. 2019. North Dakota mountain lion (Puma concolor)
samples analysis, 2019. Report, National Genomic Center for Wildlife and Fish
Conservation, USFS Rocky Mountain Research Station, Missoula, Montana, USA.
Seabloom, R. W., M. G. McKenna, and R. D. Crawford. 1980. Recent records of mammals from
southwestern North Dakota. Prairie Naturalist 12:199-123.
Stillings, B., and W. Jensen. 2021. Study No. C-I: Deer population studies. Project No. W-67-R-
61, Report No. A-270, North Dakota Game and Fish Department, Bismarck, ND, USA.
Thompson, D. J. 2009. Population demographics of cougars in the Black Hills: survival, density,
morphometry, genetic structure and interactions with density dependence.
Dissertation, South Dakota State University, Brookings, South Dakota, USA.
Tucker, S. A. 2022. Study No. E-II: Furbearer harvest regulations study. Project No. W-67-R-61,
Report No. C-495, North Dakota Game and Fish Department, Bismarck, North Dakota,
USA.
8
Young, S. P., and E. A. Goldman. 1946. The puma: Mysterious American cat. Dover
Publications, Inc., New York, New York, USA.
9
Table 1. Number of mountain lion reports recorded by classification in North Dakota, 1 July
2000 through 30 June 2022.
Fiscal year
a
Verified
b
Probable
unverified
c
Improbable
unverified
d
Unfounded
e
Total
2000-2001
4
2
0
0
6
2001-2002
8
6
4
0
18
2002-2003
3
7
10
5
25
2003-2004
4
6
11
4
25
2004-2005
16
36
31
13
96
2005-2006
39
60
40
53
192
2006-2007
52
80
50
57
239
2007-2008
57
71
52
65
245
2008-2009
31
37
39
70
177
2009-2010
22
16
32
64
134
2010-2011
38
17
25
37
117
2011-2012
56
1
23
28
108
2012-2013
35
2
12
21
70
2013-2014
41
5
18
21
85
2014-2015
39
1
13
16
69
2015-2016
30
2
6
6
44
2016-2017
23
2
11
9
45
2017-2018
36
2
12
6
56
2018-2019
28
7
16
8
59
2019-2020
24
4
17
8
53
2020-2021
15
2
20
3
40
2021-2022
13
4
26
10
53
10
Table 2. Reports of Verified mountain lion occurrence in North Dakota, 1 July 2000 through 30
June 2022.
Fiscal year
a
Sign
Carcass
Visual
observation
Incidental
capture
Photograph/
Video
Total
2000-2001
3
1
0
0
0
4
2001-2002
4
0
3
0
1
8
2002-2003
2
0
0
0
1
3
2003-2004
3
0
0
0
1
4
2004-2005
6
2
4
0
4
16
2005-2006
22
5
11
0
1
39
2006-2007
32
12
6
1
1
52
2007-2008
30
12
8
0
7
57
2008-2009
10
11
4
0
6
31
2009-2010
5
12
3
0
2
22
2010-2011
14
22
0
0
2
38
2011-2012
14
33
3
0
6
56
2012-2013
14
20
0
0
1
35
2013-2014
10
22
0
0
8
41
2014-2015
13
23
1
0
2
39
2015-2016
6
17
0
0
7
30
2016-2017
3
11
0
0
9
23
2017-2018
5
24
0
0
7
36
2018-2019
4
17
0
1
6
28
2019-2020
3
18
0
0
3
24
2020-2021
1
12
0
0
2
15
2021-2022
1
8
0
0
4
13
a
July 1 through June 30.
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Table 3. Mountain lion mortalities in North Dakota, 1 July 2021 through 30 June 2022.
ID
Cause of death
Date
Sex
Estimated
age class
(yr)
a
County
F337
Legal harvest
11/21/2021
F
1
Dunn
M338
Legal harvest
12/6/2021
M
4
Billings
M339
Legal harvest
12/8/2021
M
2
Dunn
M340
Legal harvest
1/3/2022
M
4
Dunn
F341
Legal harvest
1/12/2022
F
4
McKenzie
M342
Legal harvest
1/10/2022
M
2
Rolette
F343
Legal harvest
1/15/2022
F
2
Dunn
F344
Legal harvest
2/27/2022
F
2
McKenzie
a
When possible, cementum analysis (Matson’s Laboratory, Manhattan, Montana, USA) was
used to determine age estimates. Otherwise, estimates of age followed that of Anderson
and Lindzey (2000).
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Figure 1. Harvest zones for mountain lions in North Dakota during the 2021-2022 season.
13
Figure 2. Report form used by North Dakota Game and Fish Department personnel to
document the occurrence of mountain lions in the state.
14
Figure 3. Number of reports of mountain lion occurrence in North Dakota, 1 July 2021 through 30 June 2022.
15
Figure 4. Number of reports of mountain lion occurrence in North Dakota, fiscal years (1 July-30 June) 2000-2001 through 2021-
2022. Reports of occurrence were classified as Unfounded (evidence available to disprove the occurrence of a mountain lion),
Unverified (no evidence available to prove or disprove the occurrence of a mountain lion), and Verified (evidence available to prove
the occurrence of a mountain lion).
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Figure 5. Locations of Verified reports of mountain lion occurrence in North Dakota, 1 July 2021 through 30 June 2022.
17
Figure 6. Number of documented mountain lion mortalities due to legal and illegal harvest, protection of property or self, incidental
trapping or snaring, other or unknown human causes (automobile collisions, suspected poaching, etc.), and natural causes
(predators, disease, etc.) in North Dakota, fiscal years (1 July-30 June) 2005-2006 through 2021-2022.
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Figure 7. Deer management units where hunters reported observing a mountain lion while deer hunting in North Dakota, 2021.
19
Figure 8. Population assignments of mountain lions from Zone 2 based on genetic analysis (Ortloff et al. 2019).
20
Figure 9. Annual estimates of mountain lion population abundance and associated 95% confidence interval in North Dakota, from
2005-2022, calculated using age-at-harvest data and statistical population reconstruction (Johnson et al. 2019).