of men was decimated, giving rise to a considerable imbalance between the male and female
populations: in 1959 there were 20 million more men than women. The age bracket most
affected was that of those in their thirties. After having participated to an enormous extent in
the war effort, whether at the front, in enterprises or in agriculture, women thus found
themselves playing an active role in the process of reconstruction when the war effort was
over, which consolidated the position they had acquired during the war. They constituted 57%
of the non-agricultural labour force in 1943, and over 80% of the labour force in the collective
farms in 1945.
Their place in the active population was strengthened in the 1960s, when the USSR faced
a severe shortage of labour together with a new increase in economic growth. In this situation
women represented an important reserve of labour. In fact, of the 17 million people of
working age who were fit to work and did not hold a paid post, more than 90% were women.
However, many of them found themselves unable to work due to the shortage of crèches and
other social services. Others calculated that it was more worth their while to cultivate the plot
of family land than to take a job.
The expansion of the service sector that occurred at the end of the 1960s and during the
1970s began to draw them into the world of work, but the inequalities persisted. In spite of a
substantial improvement in their level of education, women continued to do the least qualified
and least paid jobs. In the 1980s there was a strong female presence in sectors such as health,
education, retail sales and catering, where wages were 20 to 30% below the national average.
They were over-represented in the lower levels of all sectors of activity and all branches of
industry. More than 90% of the least well paid workers were women.
In spite of laws that officially favoured equality between the sexes and guaranteed female
workers widespread protection, generous maternity leave, and obligatory breaks for young
mothers to breastfeed their children, Soviet women were thus far from having equality with
men in the world of work.
A survey published in 1974 in the journal Sotsiologitcheskie issledovania provides
information on the role of women in the organization of the daily life of families at this
period.
8
In the households of the intelligentsia, the responsibilities were shared, but in the
following way: the mistress of the house took care of everyday expenditure, while the
husband took decisions on larger items of expenditure or the choice of where to go on
holiday. Responsibilities connected with education, such as taking the children to school or
keeping an eye on their school work, seem to have fallen mainly on the women. However, as
in West European countries, there was a tendency for this situation to develop towards a
greater sharing with young couples.
At the beginning of the 1970s, in working-class and agricultural families, the
husband still played the role of head of the family, but it was the wife who was responsible for
the household budget and who held the purse strings. The reason was simple: it was she who
took on the responsibilities for everyday life in the family, in particular activities related to
securing supplies and spending time in queues.
Basing themselves on surveys on the way families made use of the time available to them,
L.A. Gordon, E.V. Klopov and L.A. Onikov, in a work published in 1977,
9
8
Sotsiologitcheskie issledovania, no. 1, 1974. Survey carried out with 470 families in Moscow.
studied the
development of the differences between the burden of work on the sexes between 1923 and
1970, making a distinction between work in production and domestic work. In spite of an
overall reduction in the time spent each week on domestic work over the period studied, they
were forced to conclude that this reduction was not very great, since the domestic burden
9
L.A. Gordon, E.V. Klopov, L.A. Onikov, Tcherty sotsialistitcheskogo obraza jizni. Byt gorodskikh rabotchikh
vtchera, segodnia, zavtra, [Characteristics of the socialist way of life. The everyday life of urban workers
yesterday, today and tomorrow] Moscow, Znanie, 1977.